I. Materials

Fabrics | Narrow Fabrics | Insulation | Leather | Closures | Hardware | Water Repellents | Sources

Extensive field trials, experimentation and testing have proved that of the many products available on the market only a few are adaptable to the high specifications demanded by light weight climbing and hiking gear. This chapter on materials is an at­tempt to give the reader the information and data he will need to make an intelligent choice among the hundreds of materials avail­able. We will include all the items that go into the making of the light weight equipment described in this book, such as fabrics, webbing, hardware, leather and fillers for sleeping bags and cloth­ing. The information will be useful not only for construction of personal equipment, but also as a guide to the purchase of durable and suitable equipment.

Community and mail order sources of materials and services will be listed. Most of the sources which carry materials of a spe­cialized nature will send catalogs and samples upon request. Samples may then be compared for the required performance characteristics. There is no more disheartening fate than to spend hours making a piece of equipment in which the workmanship is of top quality, only to find that it is worthless after a season's use because of poor or improper materials.

FABRICS

Most items of camping equipment involve the use of fabric in one way or another. One of the interesting facets of designing and making one's own equipment is the adaptation of new fabrics and materials to their most efficient use. New fabrics may include any of the myriad synthetics, blends of synthetics and natural fibers, or it may include entirely new developments in fabrics made from natural fibers. Science is always a jump ahead of the consumer. Miraculous though they are said to be, each fabric made of a new fiber must be thoroughly tested to see what it will do, publicity notwithstanding. A new fabric may be truly miraculous for one purpose, but totally unsuitable for others. In other cases adver­tisers get carried away and performance falls far short of promise. Fabrics must be tested for the specific job they are to do.

The following properties will give an idea of the suitability of a fabric for a particular piece of climbing or camping equipment.

Construction

The fabric construction with which we are most familiar is the plain weave. A plain woven fabric is woven with one fill yarn alternating over and under one warp yarn. The tightest fabrics are woven in this manner. Good examples of such a weave are broadcloth and muslin.

Due to the sharp angle the yarns take in a plain tight weave, the tear strength is relatively low. Generally speaking, the sleazier the fabric, or less tight the weave, the higher the tear strength because several yarns take up the strain at once. Parachute fabric, for in­stance, is very sleazy but wonderfully adapted to the absorption of the shock of an opening parachute due to its very high tear strength. Fabrics of a specific construction are designed and suited to specific jobs.

There are variations of plain weaves too. Oxford cloth, as an example, is a plain woven fabric where two parallel yarns are woven as one. Flat duck is woven with two warp yarns as one, giving high abrasion resistance. In poplin heavy threads run in one direction producing a ribbed effect. All are variations of plain weaves.

One special weave utilizes the swelling of the yarns when they are wet to close the pores of the fabric making it more water re­sistant. This is called a Shirley cloth and is used in such fabrics as Element Cloth, Marksway and Ventile.

In order to increase the abrasion resistance of a fabric it will sometimes be woven with one thread passing over two or three yarns to avoid the sharp angle bends of the plain weave. This method of weaving results in a fabric with a diagonal ribbed sur­face. Some examples of this weave are twill, whipcord, denim, drill and sateen. Sateen is an extreme case—a warp yarn will sometimes cross as many as seven fill yarns. A smooth lustrous surface results, but with such long exposed floaters, poor abrasion resistance is encountered.

Mosquito netting is still another construction. It can be any loosely woven netting fabric but for camping equipment it should be of marquisette construction rather than bobbinet. In marquisette the warp yarns are twisted between each filling yarn (called a leno weave) to keep them from slipping and pulling apart as will happen with cheesecloth, for instance. Bobbinet is a weave similar to chicken wire. This hexagonal weave allows it to stretch and pull out of shape very easily making it unsuitable for camping equipment. All mosquito netting should be of nylon since it is much stronger for this basically fragile construction. There are also heavier mesh fabrics which make good back sup­port panels for pack boards because their large holes allow free circulation of air.
An entirely different problem is presented when the fabric consists of something besides woven yarns, as in coated or water­proof fabrics. Any type of plastic or rubber coated fabric should be constructed with a specially woven base fabric. The coating itself lowers the tear strength of the fabric by localizing the strain of the tear to a very few threads, or even a single thread. The base fabric must allow for this and be constructed with a basket weave, many parallel threads crossing loosely. This presents a smooth flat surface for adhesion of the coating and will allow the strain of a tear to be taken by many threads at once resulting in a much stronger fabric. Such a coated fabric is U.S. Rubber's Fiberthin or Reeves-Vulcan Coverlite.

This general description of construction of fabrics will give some idea as to the choice of a fabric for a specific purpose. First decide on the job to be performed and then choose a fabric that will do it.

Properties

Weight

Weight as a property of a fabric is self-evident. The lighter the fabric, the lighter the finished product. However, weight is also a general indication of the tear strength and abrasion re­sistance. The heavier the fabric, the greater the tear strength and abrasion resistance.

The weights given for fabrics are usually stated by the weaver as ounces per square yard of the fabric and due to variations in the weaving process can vary as much as ten per cent in either direc­tion. In coated fabrics variation may be even greater due to ir­regularity in the thickness of the coating. Some fabrics go by weight per running yard (usually the very narrow ones and the very wide ones) so it is important that the basis for the weight be stated.

Porosity

Porosity is the ability of a fabric to allow the passage of air. This is usually stated as cubic feet of air passed per minute, for each square foot of fabric area, at a wind pressure equal to 32 miles per hour (½" hydrostatic pressure).

There are two rough methods for home comparison of porosity. Place a piece of fabric over the mouth and blow through it, hold­ing the fabric tightly against the lips. Quickly blow through an­other sample fabric. The difference in porosity, if great enough, can be sensed. Another check is to hold the fabric to a strong light and note the amount of light passage. Care must be taken with this method though for, in twill weaves especially, maximum light passage is seen when the fabric is tilted off the vertical. Tilt the fabric at various angles to see the maximum light. The more light passage, the more porous the fabric. Porosity is important as an indication of a fabric's wind resistance.
Tear Strength

Tear strength, as opposed to tensile strength, is of great prac­tical value for it is here that failure will occur in the field. It is a function of both the weave and the fiber used. For example, it is important to know how much force is required to tear a tent which might become snagged on a tree branch, or perhaps the tear strength of a pair of pants caught on a sharp projection of rock. At least it will be useful to know the comparative performance of various fabrics under these conditions.

Tensile strength, on the other hand, is a bursting of the fabric, depending more on the fiber used, and is of much less practical value in use.

Fabrics should have a balanced construction so that tear strength is approximately equal in both directions along the warp and fill. This is difficult to do with mixed fibers such as fabrics with cotton warp and nylon fill.

To measure the tear strength of a fabric, cut a slit in the direc­tion of the weave and punch a hole in one of the two legs formed. Hook in a spring scales reading up to ten pounds or so and pull the other leg until the fabric tears, noting how much force is re­quired to continue the tear. Comparative tests are possible with­out the scales if necessary. Be sure the tear is always started with a cut, and the force required to continue the tear is observed.

Abrasion Resistance

Abrasion resistance is obviously one of the most important prop­erties of fabrics for pants, packs, and such items of equipment, but one for which it is almost impossible to establish valid tests. Such things as abrasive surface, pressure of contact, tension in the fabrics, determination of point of failure, are all variables that have a. great influence on the outcome of any test. These variables are very hard to control precisely and to date there is no method known that correlates with actual wear in service. No effort has been made here to evaluate abrasion resistance. Suffice it to say that the recommended fabrics seem to be performing well in service.

Water Repellency

Water repellents are extremely variable in their performance. No completely satisfactory test has been developed to rate their qualities.

A simple comparison test can be made on a number of samples, however. Stretch samples of fabric tightly over the top of a bowl. Pour a constant quantity of water into the center of the sample from a constant height. About one quart of water poured slowly from a height of one foot will give results. Any great difference in the water repellency of various samples will be shown by the quantity of water allowed to pass through into the bowl. It is best to run several samples of each fabric for more accurate results.

Some water repellents are much more durable than others and it is advisable to repeat the test after hanging the samples out to weather for two or three weeks. More will be said of repellents for home use later.

Color

It would at first seem that color is entirely a matter of personal choice. However, there are two points to be considered before al­lowing aesthetic feelings to take over. First, very dark colors are excellent radiators of radiant heat. For maximum warmth there­fore stick to light and medium colors. Secondly, if visibility is im­portant remember that bright orange has the highest visibility against snow or in fog and bright yellow is more visible in most other circumstances. If these conditions don't have to be met then any whim can be satisfied with any color at all. If red is de­sired in a cotton fabric, be sure it is vat dyed as other dyes in bright red are apt to rub off on white shirts, etc.

Fibers

There are many things that could be said about fibers in this day of man-made synthetics. The search for the perfect fiber goes on. It occupies the time of hundreds of scientists. These men can predict the properties of a fiber of a given molecular structure; they can build a fiber, and thus a fabric, almost to order. But it seems there is always a drawback for each set of advantages. De­signers must use the fiber with the best combination of advantages and either overcome its drawbacks or live with them.

Experience and testing by many climbers and campers have proved many of the old standbys very suitable. The performance of many of the newer fibers and fabrics are not so well known. The following descriptions of fibers will cover those that have proved to be the best suited for construction of light weight gear.
Nylon

Nylon, in spite of many more recent developments in synthetics, is still the strongest fabric for its weight. In spite of disadvantages it outranks all other fibers where toughness and light weight are desirable.

Nylon is usually woven as a continuous filament yarn. Its fila­ment is a tough solid elastic rod drawn out to a fine diameter suit­able for weaving. It is this construction which gives nylon fabric both its advantages and disadvantages.

Its disadvantages are of two kinds—those which can be over­come through proper use of the fiber and fabric, and those which have to be put up with. Those disadvantages which can be over­come by suitable techniques are:

1.  Nylon's slipperiness makes a sleazy fabric unless it is care­ fully woven and heat set in the finishing operation. This slippery quality also causes the cut edges of the fabric to fray very badly unless finished seams are used or the edges are melted to fuse the yarns together.

2.  Nylon, being a hard round fiber, requires proper techniques and close controls to weave into a tight fabric. It does not pack easily.

3.  Nylon thread is difficult to use in home sewing machines due to its elasticity. With practice and proper tension adjustment, nylon becomes easier to use and this very elasticity makes it ideal for locations of stress.

Those important disadvantages which have to be put with are:

1.  Nylon is not a wet weather fabric. No matter how tightly it is woven, the solid round rod characteristic of its fibers pre­vent it from retaining any water repellent treatment for very long, especially after a few weeks' weathering. Nylon cloth­ing tends to soak through sooner than cotton in a steady rain. A durable impregnation that is fairly repellent and helps close the pores of the fabric has been developed by Gerry but it stiffens the fabric and hence is used mainly for packs.

2.  Condensation problems are more acute in nylon tents and clothing than in cotton. Some authorities say that nylon is less permeable to water vapor than cotton, but recent textile research tends to refute this. The fact remains that the con­densation of moisture inside a nylon tent or one with a nylon lining is more disagreeable than with cotton fabrics. Some preliminary work done by Gerry indicates there is actually less moisture pickup by weight with nylon, but what there is is present on the surface of the fabric, making it "feel" much wetter. If the nylon is shaken, it drops more of its moisture than cotton. In spite of this the most successful high altitude tents are nylon (with cotton liners in double walled tents) due to their light weight and durability. High humidity aggravates the condensation so once again—"nylon is not a wet weather fabric."
Even with these disadvantages nylon's toughness, elasticity and light weight will make it the choice where lightest weight is re­quired. There are times when another fabric must be chosen such as when high humidity and rain dictate the use of cotton, but where you want a parka and a pair of wind pants that will fit into the hip pockets, a light nylon is the thing.

Cotton

Old reliable cotton still has important advantages. Pima or Egyptian cottons have extra long fibers and make superior fabrics. Pima cotton is an American Egyptian cotton grown in the South­west from Egyptian seed. It must have at least a 1⅝" fiber length.

Some of the important advantages of cotton are:

1.  Less disagreeable condensation.

2.  Cotton will accept and hold any water repellent treatment.

3.  Cotton can be packed easily into a tightly woven, wind re­sistant fabric.

Its disadvantages are:

1. It has a low tear strength.

2. Cotton is subject to mildew and rot.

Cotton is often used in conjunction with nylon in order to re­tain the advantages of both. Pima-Nylon fabrics are such a com­bination. These, however, range in quality from the English Wyncol fabric (Everest fabric) of extremely low porosity, to cheap fabrics of very high porosity whose only similarity to Wyncol fabric is their use of both nylon and cotton yarns.

Wool

Wool is used to advantage chiefly in shirts, socks, mittens and pants. It retains its springiness and hence its warmth when wet, though the strength is lowered appreciably. Where abrasion re­sistance is important such as in climbing pants, wool is not as suit­able as some of the synthetics.

The use of wool as a sleeping bag filler will be discussed later.

Dacron

Dacron is a synthetic almost as strong as nylon though it lacks nylon's elasticity. The lack of elasticity in dacron gives it an ad­vantage over nylon when it is used as sewing thread. Continuous filament dacron sewing thread is much easier to handle in home sewing machines than nylon. The lack of elasticity also makes it possible to weave very firm tight fabrics from dacron.

It is also slightly more resistant to weather and sun than nylon. For these reasons it is used for the best boat sails and makes a fine tent fabric.

Dacron's use as a sleeping bag filler will be discussed later.

Orion

All of the natural and most of the synthetic fibers, including nylon and Dacron, deteriorate upon exposure to direct sunlight. Orion has been developed specifically to resist this deterioration. Generally, except for tents which are left up all summer year after year, this advantage is not of too great importance.

Orion, in its spun state, where it is cut into short lengths and spun into yarn as natural fibers are, closely resembles wool. It is nylon and dacron, deteriorate upon exposure to direct sunlight, considerably stronger than wool especially when wet, and makes excellent clothing.

Fabric Coatings

An actual plastic or rubber coating on a fabric is the only way to waterproof it completely. This also means that the fabric is completely impermeable to water vapor. This in turn means that vapor will be trapped inside, and such a coated fabric must be used only where ventilation is adequate. There is one fabric coating, Aldanair, which is slightly permeable to water vapor. This coating has poor abrasion resistance, however, and its uses are limited.

Table of Comparative Textile Fiber Properties

FIBER	Nylon	Dacron	Orlon	Cotton	Wool
Tensile Strength in gms/denier	6.8	6.1	4.5	3.9	1.4
Elongation before breaking	22%	12%	16%	5%	30%
Effect of Heart	melts at 482°F	melts at 480°F	sticky at 455°F	scorches at 500°F	scorches at 400°F
Effect of Sunlight and weathering	loses strength	loses less strength	very resistant	loses strength	loses strength
Resistance to Moths	wholly	wholly	wholly	wholly	wholly
Resistance to Mildew	wholly	wholly	finish may be attacked	very poor	Good

There are many fabrics coated with a large variety of com­pounds. Few of these compounds are suitable for camping equip­ment. Most are very heavy imitation leather fabrics, or those used for heavy protective tarpaulins. Some stiffen and crack after weathering, some stiffen and crack at low temperatures. Some compounds are easily peeled from the base fabric, some have little abrasion resistance. Most of them reduce the tear strength of the fabric, as mentioned before. Some of the most suitable compounds for climbing and camping gear which takes hard wear are poly-vinyl butyral, the low temperature vinyl compounds and neoprene. A long weathering test of about two or three months will usually tell the story. A scratch with the fingernail or rubbing the coated surfaces together will indicate any deterioration in the coating.

A two-side coated or impregnated fabric will weigh about half again more than a single coated fabric, but has the advantage that a leak will not develop if the coating on one side wears through. Also, with the double coatings interconnecting through the fab­ric, the adhesion to the base fabric is much better.

A good many of the best fabrics mentioned in this book are so specialized that they are obtainable only from dealers using this kind of fabric. They are listed at the end of this chapter. How­ever, in many cases local yardgoods stores and awning shops carry very suitable fabrics.

The term narrow fabrics as it is used here applies to all kinds of webbing, tapes, cords, laces and thread. The discussion will be limited to those products which are adapted to climbing and camp­ing gear.

Table of Comparative Fabric Properties
compiled by Gerry

Fabric Description	Weight Per Square Yard (nominal)	Air Porosity* (cu. ft/ sq. ft /min @ ½”H2O pressure)	Tongue Tear Strength (average lbs.)
HEAVY PACK FABRICS
Double filled army duck, cotton	12.1 oz.		17
Army nylon duck (unwaterproof)	6.5 oz.		50
GERRY nylon pack fabric (waterproof)	6.5 oz.		17
HEAVY CLOTHING FABRICS
11 oz. cotton denim	11 oz.		12.5
Army 9 oz. sateen	9 oz.		14.4
Orlon Whipcord	8.5 oz.		8.0
Wool Kersey	9 oz.		3.5
WIND RESISTANT CLOTHING AND TENT FABRICS
Wyncol fabric (Everest fabric)	4.5 oz.	0.66	4.5
Nylon Pima Oxford (army specs)	5 oz.	3.0	9.5
Byrd Cloth	5.25 oz.	5.6	4.3
Element Cloth	5.25 oz.	4.45	4.0
LIGHT WEIGHT CLOTHING AND TENT FABRICS
Quanto Cloth	2.4 oz.	2.64	7.2
Rip-Stop Nylon (untreated)	1.9 oz.	10.7	6.1
		(silicone doped sail cloth is much lower)
Zephyr Nylon (silicone doped)	1.49 oz.	1.08	2.5
French Nylon	1.64 oz.	7.53	3.0
Army 120 x 120 cotton balloon cloth	2.25 oz.	89.0	1.5
English Egyptian Cotton	2.75 oz.	4.11	2.9
Alpine Nylon	2.36 oz.	2.32	7.1
COATED FABRICS
Horcolite (polyvinyl butanal)	2.75 oz.		5
Coverlite (neoprene)	6.5 oz.		7
Fiberthin (vinyl)	5 oz.		9
MISCELLANEOUS FABRICS
Nylon mosquito netting (army specs)	1.6 oz.		3
Nylon tulle	.75 oz.		0.5
Nylon shoe mesh	9 oz.		35

* Porosity tests were done by Textile Testing Institute, Huguet Fabric and Cheney Brothers.
NARROW FABRICS

The term narrow fabrics as it is used here applies to all kinds of webbing, tapes, cords, laces and thread. The discussion will be limited to those products which are adapted to climbing and camp­ing gear.

Webbing

Webbing is a stout firmly woven narrow fabric. Strap grade webbing (the only grade useful here) comes in various widths— ⅝", ¾", l½", 2", etc. The narrower widths, ⅝" to ¾", are the widths suitable for the various parts of pack harness that don't bear against the body with the full weight of the pack, such as waist straps, attachment straps, and the lower sections of shoulder straps. This width is also for peg loops in tents.

The wider widths, l½" to 2" webbing, are suitable for pack shoulder straps and other portions of pack harness that bear the weight of the pack on the body. The wider width is used for the obvious reason that narrow straps cut the shoulders and become extremely uncomfortable. The webbing for these straps should be very firm, not limp.

In the fabrication of most packs cotton webbing is satisfactory since it is firm, tough and close-woven. Nylon webbing has the advantage of being rot and mildew proof, but its greater strength is not needed here. Only nylon webbing is suitable for tent loops due to its toughness and abrasion resistance. Great strain is placed on these loops and they are cut by rocks and stakes.

Cargo parachute shroud lines are often made of ½" or 1" tubular nylon webbing. Army surplus stores frequently carry this webbing and it is very suitable for many of the pack and tent ap­plications described. Since this webbing is tubular, when it is used with buckles and as pack straps it should be stitched together flat lengthwise once or twice. The ends of all nylon webbing should be melted in a flame to prevent fraying. The end of the webbing is held close to the flame until it begins to melt.

Tape

Tape is by definition a narrow fabric of light weight. As re­ferred to here it is woven with two finished edges. Bias or self fabric tapes are not suitable. Some nylon tapes have melted edges but they will fray eventually.

Tapes of ½"or ¾" width are most frequently used for reinforc­ing along lines of stress in tents and packs and as draw and tie tapes in tents, sleeping bags and other gear. The ¾"to 1" widths are useful in the binding of seams to prevent cut edges of the fabric from fraying.
Twill tape is a standard sewing item stocked in most notions departments. Even stronger and giving a better finished appear­ance is a good quality grosgrain ribbon.

Cord

Nylon parachute shroud line (cord) with a diameter of 7/32" and a tensile strength of 550 pounds serves excellently for many purposes: pack drawstrings, packboard lashing, tent guylines. Sev­eral accessories such as drawstring clamps and guyline tighteners are made specically to fit this cord. The best parachute shroud line is constructed with an outside nylon sheath braided around several central nylon core yarns. The plaited type without the finely woven sheath tends to snag on rocks and branches. All cut ends of shroud lines should be melted in a flame to prevent fray­ing. Army surplus stores stock this cord regularly.

Lace

Shoe lace material, nylon and cotton, by the yard makes excel­lent light drawstrings for clothing, ditty bags, cases and such. It makes fine tieback tapes to hold mosquito netting and tent doors out of the way. It is also used as reinforcing along lines of stress in tents. Nylon lace does not stay tied very well unless it is the fuzzy spun nylon variety with a soft cotton core.

Thread

Thread is extremely important to all items of equipment since the seams, except in the lightest fabrics, are generally the weakest points. Cotton thread is not strong enough for most uses in climb­ing and camping equipment and will not be discussed. If it must be used, go to a tailor's or upholstery shop and get a good strong mercerized grade without knots or slubs.

Of the strong synthetic threads dacron is the easiest to use in the home sewing machine because it does not stretch and drop stitches, as we have said before. Nylon, however, still has the edge where strength really counts. Usually, the heavier threads are easier to handle, size E being about as large as any home sewing machine can take. The smaller sizes, A and B, are generally avail­able at notions counters. Shoe repair shops sometimes use the larger sizes.

For very heavy sewing, such as attaching shoulder straps to heavy pack fabric, it is best to sew by hand using a large needle or stitching awl. For this kind of stitching one of the center core threads from nylon parachute shroud lines or nylon fish line make the strongest possible stitch.

Table of Comparative Thread Strengths in Pounds

COTTON – 6 cord
size	40	36		30	24		20	16		Coats & Clarks Button & Carpet		Waxed Stitching Awl Thread
strength soft	2.3	2.6		3	3.5		4	4.6
strength mercerized	2.7	2.9		3.5	4.4		5.1	6.4		8.5		20
SYNTHETICS
Size			B			C			D		E		F
Nylon strength			4.5			6			7.5		9		13.5
Dacron strength			4			5.4			6.7		8.1		12

INSULATION

All of the materials used for filling sleeping bags, sleeping bag pads and insulating garments will be considered as insulation. Any material which will sufficiently deaden the air against circu­lation, be it eiderdown or steelwool, will provide the same degree of insulation per unit of thickness. This is not a commonly known fact but its application to insulated camping gear is apparent. The conduction of heat through the insulating material itself is negligible, the insulating value depending entirely upon the thick­ness of the dead air space the material provides. For instance, a one inch dead air space filled with steelwool will give the same insulation as a one inch space filled with down. There are no "miracle" materials.

In camping and climbing equipment there are two distinct functions which insulating materials must serve. The first and most common is the requirement for an insulating material which will compress to the smallest possible volume for packing and which will, on the other hand, expand to the greatest possible volume for insulating when released.

The second function of insulating materials is confined almost exclusively to the bottoms of sleeping bags or the insulating pads which go under them. It requires a material with the opposite characteristics. It must be of low enough density to provide an insulating air space but firm enough to resist compression. Obviously a material which compresses easily for packing will also compress under the weight of the body, thus eliminating its in­sulating value. Conversely, these materials of limited compressi­bility must be used sparingly since an insulation which won't compress under body weight will not roll into a pack readily. These materials are used as padding under the body at the points of greatest compression—the shoulders, hips and feet.

Down

The natural down from water fowl is the best of all known insulating materials of the easily compressed type—the least weight will fill the greatest volume and will in turn compress to the smallest space for packing.

Down is distinct from feathers, although there are always small feathers mixed with down. A true down pod has no quill whatso­ever. It is rather a multitude of light fuzzy filaments extending radially from a central nucleus. The quality of down depends on the size and symmetry of the down pods and upon the absence of feathers, dirt or other contamination. Goose down is generally superior to duck down although, as with all natural materials, the quality varies. The quality is usually determined by the filling power and by the amount the down will re-expand after compres­sion. A good grade of goose down will fill about 500 cubic inches per ounce of down.

The Army Quartermaster has vacuum packed down as hard as a rock for years and an hour after release it was back to almost its original volume. Down is used to advantage chiefly in sleeping bags and insulated garments to be used at extremely low tempera­tures. It is sometimes adulterated with feathers to make a lower priced product.

Dacron Batting

Dacron batting is next in efficiency to down in the easily com­pressed category of insulating material. A greater weight of dacron is required to expand it into the same amount of space as down and at the same time it cannot be compressed so compactly as down. After prolonged compression it does not expand to quite its original volume. However, it does have the advantages of being a synthetic and therefore a uniform fiber, inexpensive and readily available. It can regain much of its original resiliency by being washed and tumble dried in a home dryer. Dacron must be stitched in bats to hold it in place rather than being packed in loose like down; otherwise it will shift and bunch together leaving cold spots in the sleeping bag or garment.

Foam Insulation

Foam plastics furnish some of the best materials for the compres­sion resisting function of insulating materials, providing insula­tion and support for the shoulders, hips and feet. They will fur­nish the most support under a sleeping body and hence the most insulation against cold ground and snow. Although these products are very good they are difficult to fabricate into sleeping bags and are best used as a separate pad under the bag.
Wool Batting

A good grade of wool batting is excellent for use in sleeping bags where insulation and support are desired. While not giving quite as much support per unit of weight as the foam insulations, a good grade of virgin wool batting will give almost twice as much support as down and is, in addition, very easily incorporated into the construction of a sleeping bag.

Wool is also used as a sleeping bag filler—performing the first, compression-expansion, function of insulating materials. How­ever, since Dacron has become generally available and is more suit­able for this purpose, wool batting is not recommended as a filler.

Table of Support of Various Materials
SUPPORT PROVIDED by equal weights per area (.1 gm/cm2) under a loading of .5 kg/cm2. This represents the approximate practical weight for a sleeping pad and the pressure exerted by body pressure points.

MATERIAL	cm of thickness under load
Spongex 534	.85
Ensolite M	.70
Virgin wool overlayed with ¼" ensolite	.67
Polyester foam	.63
(there is a whole family of foam plastics that have not been evaluated yet)
Virgin wool batting	.60
Sponge rubber G-200-C	.55
Dacron batting	.50
Dacron pile fabric	.40
White goose down	.32

Compiled by GERRY for USAF Arctic Aeromedical Lab

LEATHER

Leather is a complicated subject because it is more art than science and it is difficult to nail down sources of dependable grade leather. Being a natural product, the quality of leather varies greatly.

Leather is classified in two ways, by the name of the animal it comes from and the type of tanning method used. Because of its general availability steer and cowhide are perhaps the most com­monly used of all leathers. They produce heavy coarse grained leather used for most straps, belts, saddles, harness, etc. Those animals growing in warm climates produce leathers of finer grain and more compact structure than those growing in cold climates. Leathers from animals growing in cold climates are generally thicker.
Top grain (the skin side) cowhide is the best grade leather. Straps cut from along the back are firm and tough while leather from the belly is soft and porous. Splits (the inside leather) are the opposite from top grain and are not suitable here.

Calfskins are fine grained, close textured, leathers but too light for use except as reinforcing for pack bottoms or rappel patches on pants and jackets. Capeskin can be split down thinner than other leathers and still retain its toughness. It is good for use in mittens, gloves, etc.

Horsehide is good too and Cordovan which is cut from the butt of the hide would make excellent straps if it were not for its high cost.

Sheepskin and deerskin are too soft and porous to be of much use for equipment such as this. Fancy leathers such as ostrich, alli­gator, sharkskin, etc., while having excellent properties, are not of practical value here.

There are two basic tanning methods, the age old vegetable tan­ning and the relatively new chrome tanning process. Vegetable tanning is very time consuming, taking from two to six months even by modern processes. This process is essential for the tanning of heavy cowhides—up to a quarter inch in thickness. These cow­hides are used for making belting and harness leathers. These leathers are also prestretched and impregnated with oils and grease (curried) to prevent their becoming soft and stretching when wet. Most of these leathers are suitable for pack straps. However, vegetable tanned leathers dry out and become brittle if not properly cared for.

Most of the heavy-appearing uncurried vegetable tanned cow­hides are not waterproof. They will become soft and spongy and will stretch entirely out of shape when wet. Many of these leathers are suitable for molding into camera cases and such, but must be protected against future wetting if they are to retain their molded shape. Such leather is not suitable for pack straps unless it is made waterproof and kept that way. Good quality, heavy vegetable tanned leathers are readily available as tooling or carving leather.

Chrome tanning is a much more rapid process. However, it results in a soft leather that is sometimes very spongy. Most light weight skins are tanned by this process and it is very difficult to find chrome tanned leather heavy enough and firm enough for good pack straps. Chrome tanned leathers have the advantage of being naturally waterproof. They will retain their shape even when wet.
In spite of all the above, leather tanning is still very much an art and the choice of suitable leather will have to be made ex­perimentally from what is locally available.

Leather thickness is described as ounces per square foot. A 7 to 8 ounce leather is heavy enough for pack straps, 5 to 6 ounce for most other uses. 1 to 2 ounce light leather is used for clothing and reinforcing pack bottoms.

Waterproofings such as neat's-foot oil, or greases which are ab­sorbed by leather, will soften it and allow it to stretch unless it is prestretched as in belting and harness leather. Wax type dressings such as ordinary shoe polish don't soak in, give a good repellent surface but wear off quickly. Satisfactory compromise dressings are made of waxes combined with a solvent which penetrates the leather and evaporates leaving the hard wax behind as a dressing in the surface of the leather.

Some of the silicone compounds are used to great advantage in the tanning and dressing of leather but whether or not the manufacturer has put their advantages to the best use can be de­termined only by testing the specific products. Everything with the word silicone on the label is not necessarily good.

Leather is best cut with a good sharp knife against a board, using a metal straightedge since the blade tends to wander off the desired line. The outline of the piece should be marked in pencil and the straightedge held very firmly. Razor blades can be used but unless they are new they won't cut well.

CLOSURES

Zippers

Although there are many sizes, qualities and makes of zippers, as with everything described, it seems there are only a few ap­plicable to this equipment. There is the light size 3 or 4 and the size which is called either 5 or 6 depending on the manufacturer, and very occasionally the extra large size 7. In addition, these sizes are available in various widths of tapes. The light weight size 4, commonly used on women's clothing, is too delicate for most uses in camping and climbing gear except for mosquito net­tings in tents. Here it is convenient to have a pull tab on both sides so the zipper may be pulled from both inside and outside the tent.

Following is a table showing the relative weights per foot and relative strengths for various zippers. The strength per single tooth is an indication of how easily the zipper is damaged by snag­ging.

Table of Zipper Properties

TALON
Strongest across teeth but operates one direction only and teeth snag easily.
Size	Metal	Tape	Weight in oz. per foot	Strength across 1” of teeth	Strength per tooth
4	Alum.	7/16”	3/16 oz.	82 lbs.	8 lbs. pulled off
4	Brass	7/16”	6/16 oz.	82 lbs.	11 lbs. pulled off
6	Alum.	9/16”	5/16 oz.	105 lbs.	14 lbs. pulled off
6	Brass	9/16”	10/16 oz.	128 lbs.	19 lbs. pulled off
9	Alum.	9/16”	9/16 oz.	173 lbs.
9	Brass	12/16”	26/16 oz. (1 5/8 oz.)	336 lbs.
CROWN
Smoothest operating and but opens from either end. Teeth practically snagproof.
Size	Cast	Tape	Weight in oz. per foot	Strength across 1” of teeth	Strength per tooth
3	Cast	7/16”	5/16 oz.	60 lbs.	20 lbs. no damage
5	Cast	5/8”	9/16 oz.	100 lbs.	20 lbs. no damage
5	Cast	3/4”	10/16 oz.	100 lbs.	20 lbs. no damage
7	Cast	3/4”	20/16 oz. (1 ¼ oz.)	250 lbs.
7	Cast	1”	21/16 oz. (1 5/16 oz.)	250 lbs.

Compiled by GERRY

The large size zipper, 5 or 6, is the zipper commonly used on jackets and heavy clothing. These zippers are available with either heavy or light weight tapes for use with heavy or light fabrics. They are suitable for most of the uses described, sleeping bags, tents, clothing and packs.

Many of the brands of zippers on the market are good, but the smoothest operating and most snag proof is the Crown zipper which has the teeth die-cast onto the tape. This makes them much less susceptible to twisting out of alignment. Even the light weight size 3 has considerable durability. The Crown zipper should be used in all applications where durability and smooth functioning are essential. Some of the very cheap zippers work very roughly and should be tested before using for any of this equipment.
The Crown zippers and some of the other zippers have two-way teeth, which means the slider can be put on so that it opens to­ward either end. Even more convenient, more than one slider can be put on the zipper. For instance, by using several sliders it is possible to have many opening combinations: sliders opening from each end; opening between the sliders; several openings be­tween pairs of sliders. A tent door can be made to open from the bottom for going in and out and from the top for ventilation.

It is very difficult to get custom made Crown zippers. By custom made is meant a zipper cut to any length and with any combina­tion of sliders and openings. The reason for this difficulty is that in order to attach the slider and stops at either end after the zipper chain has been cut, a number of teeth must be removed from the tape on each end. With most zippers these teeth may be pulled off with a pair of pliers without damaging the tape. The teeth of Crown zippers must be individually broken in half and carefully peeled off the tape half at a time. Gerry custom makes Crown zippers. Luggage repair shops and tent and awning manufacturers will supply other brands in custom lengths.

Zippers may be repaired or revised by changing their lengths as long as the teeth are in perfect working order. One or two teeth out of line will ruin a zipper and make it worthless. The easiest method of shortening a zipper is to cut it off at the top or open end and pull off several teeth from each side. If the top stops cannot be pried open and pressed on the tape again above the teeth, satis­factory top stops can be made with needle and thread by whipping over and over between the last two teeth on each side of the top opening.

In replacing a damaged slider it is easiest to remove the two top stops, slide off the damaged slider and replace it with a new slide at the top. Make certain that the zipper stays closed during this operation! Occasionally a zipper will open behind the slider. The quickest way to repair the zipper if this happens is to remove the top stops, run the slider off, remove the bottom stop and start the slider on again from the bottom. As soon as the slider is on and the first few closed teeth appear, the bottom stop should be replaced. However, most bottom stops cannot be used a second time and a new one will have to be put on. The best type of bot­tom stop is one that fits over the teeth and has long prongs to go through the tape to be clinched on the back side. A temporary repair can be made by sewing the bottom tightly together with thread, but this does not wear well and the teeth will frequently get out of alignment. If there is much zipper work to be done a few dozen top and bottom stops can be purchased from a zipper repair shop.
When the tape around the separating fixture of a zipper, such as is commonly used on jackets, becomes worn or the fixture itself becomes bent, it is practically impossible to fix it. Such a zipper should be replaced.

There are various types of zipper sliders. A nonlocking slider will slide down the tape and open by itself when pressure is ap­plied. These should not be used on clothing or duffle bags.

There are three types of locking sliders. They must be used with discretion since the locking mechanism transfers all the force of the pull to one or two zipper teeth. It is sometimes better to use a nonlocking slider which will open under stress rather than a locking slider which will ruin an entire zipper if enough force is applied to deform a tooth. Crown zippers are more able to take this strain than most. For instance, the zipper in a tent door could be damaged when the strain is applied on a locking slider by someone stepping on a half opened door. The notch-lock slider has a small projection inside which will catch on the tooth when force is applied to separate the tapes, but will run freely at all other times. The pin-lock slider used mostly on pants flies has a pin attached to the pull tab which engages the teeth when the tab is folded flat against the slider. This lock is easily removed if it is not wanted.

The spring-lock slider is the most common type for the large size zippers. This lock allows the slider to move only when the tab is pulled out away from the zipper chain. This lock has the advan­tage of engaging two teeth instead of one. For tents and sleeping bags where access is had to both sides of the zipper, a slider with a pull tab on both sides is necessary. A notch-locking slider is the only type obtainable with a pull tab on both sides. A notch-lock slider will work open under intermittent stress such as a flapping tent.

Sliders with little chains and rings are easier to grasp than the slider tab itself. Where it is necessary to use a zipper with mittens the pull tab should have a large enough hole to receive a long leather thong. Some sliders do not have holes big enough to put anything through, let alone a leather thong.

Where necessary a zipper can be made fairly water repellent by treating the tape with any commercial repellent treatment. If this is a wax base treatment it also helps the zipper slide easily. Sticky zippers can sometimes be helped by rubbing with wax or with graphite such as pencil lead.

Velcro Tape

Velcro Tape is a new closing device that has some uses similar to zippers. It consists of two different woven nylon tapes. One tape is composed of tiny loops like miniature terry cloth loops. The other is a mass of little hooks like a cockle burr. When these two tapes are pressed together they cling tenaciously and have to be peeled apart. The tape is both washable and sewable. One good use which has been developed for this kind of tape is the closure of down items. It is sewn along the opening, with snaps set at intervals, making a good draft free and snag proof closing which doesn't flatten out the insulation. Other uses are being developed. Beware the hot iron! It will melt the tape.

Snaps

Snaps, of course, have many uses on closures. The most com­mon snaps available are Laundry Proof Snappers. These are available in inexpensive home setting kits at sewing centers. These snaps hold well, much better than glove or birdcage snaps which are sold in craft shops. For heavy duty a Durable Dot Fastener or similar snap can be applied at luggage shops, tent and awning makers, or makers of convertible car tops. Car top or slip cover manufacturers are also likely to have Lift Dot and other types of fasteners designed for specific purposes. Fairly expensive hand set tools for Durable Dot Snaps are available in craft shops if much snap work is to be done.

HARDWARE

The very best hardware for climbing and camping gear is, of course, non-rusting and corrosion resistant. Steel is often used with plating of one sort or another to protect it against rusting. This is not very satisfactory. Equipment such as this gets hard wear and the plating is eventually scratched and worn through leaving the steel open to attack by rust. Hardware made of non-rusting metals such as brass, zinc, copper, aluminum and stain­less steel provides insurance against rust. Brass and copper are sometimes nickel plated to prevent corrosion in a salty atmosphere and to put a polish on the hardware for appearance.

Buckles

Buckles are used in climbing and camping equipment primarily for making pack straps adjustable. They are also used for cloth­ing straps and straps for general packing.

The tongue buckle is the most common but has the disadvan­tage of being adjustable only where the holes are placed in the strap and of concentrating the strain on the one small hole in the strap.

The web strap buckle is a buckle with serrated teeth gripping the full width of the strap and holding any position along the strap. This buckle can also be used for leather straps if the leather is of uniform thickness. There must be some slack in the strap for unfastening this buckle. Under some circumstances it is very difficult to obtain enough slack to unfasten it.

There are several types of special buckles which are operable under load or with mittens. These may be useful under certain conditions, such as extreme cold when fingers might be frost­bitten if mittens were removed, or with a very tight pack or roll where it is extremely difficult to get sufficient slack to release the usual buckle. Examples of such special buckles are the skate strap buckle and tourniquet buckles.

For straps which do not require frequent adjustment, such as shoulder straps on packs, a very satisfactory type is the army ladder buckle which depends entirely on friction. Threaded one way this is also an easily released buckle but will not hold much load. Threaded for maximum friction it is very secure.

Rivets

Rivets are used mainly for fastening leather straps and fasten­ing hardware onto the straps. They may be used to reinforce the attachment of leather to fabric, but for this purpose they should never be used alone for they concentrate too much strain on one place in the fabric. When being used with fabric a rivet should always be used with stitching, the rivet being set just inside the stitching. The stitching then accepts the strain first and distributes it. The rivet takes only the strain the stitching gives up by its elasticity. Preferably the rivet should be backed on the fabric side by a small piece of leather. One good rivet in a ¾"wide firm chrome leather strap can support approximately 90 pounds.

A rivet which is easy to use and at the same time gives the great­est strength is a copper rivet and burr. This rivet has a large head and a burr or washer is placed over the other end before it is peened over. A hole must be made in the material to receive the rivet.

The Dot Speedy Rivet is not as strong as a copper rivet and burr but is easier to use. The two parts are simply driven to­gether with a hammer. These also require a hole in the material before setting.

A tubular rivet can be driven through the material and set in one operation using a cheap tool generally available at hardware stores. The set is accomplished by splaying the tubular end in a star shape. If used with fabric it must be backed by a leather washer.
Miscellaneous Hardware

There are occasional uses for other items of harness, boot and bag hardware such as dee rings, snap hooks, strap tips, lacing hooks and eyelets, grommets and washers and snaps.

The strongest type of dee rings are cast in one piece or bent from wire and welded. If they are bent and not welded they may pull apart. Square corners prevent their turning in the strap. Cast zinc dee rings are malleable and will not break.

There are many types of snap hooks available, cast, stamped out, and formed of wire. Some are large enough to work with mittens on the hands and some are too small to work comfortably at all. Others such as Hubbard Snaps are made especially to go around the large size rods of which pack frames are made.

Strap tips are used on web strap ends to prevent fraying. Horseshoe style tips are almost impossible to set without tools as they tend to spread too wide for the buckle when compressed onto the strap. Ferrule style tips (a brass cup) are easy to pound flat on the strap. Another tip which is easy to use is a simple fold of metal with teeth to grip the strap. This is pounded together over the end of the strap.

All of the hardware mentioned can usually be obtained at hard­ware and luggage stores, or if there is still a harness and saddle shop convenient, all these items and many more of interest will be found.

Lacing hooks, such as are used on boots and shoes, and shoe lacing eyelets are useful items that can be purchased and applied at shoe repair shops. Stationery stores can supply relatively inex­pensive hand tools for setting eyelets. Larger size holes require grommets and washers which are available at tent and awning manufacturers. These may also be set with an inexpensive hand tool which would be convenient to acquire if much equipment is to be made or repaired.

WATER REPELLENTS

There are no truly permanent water repellents. Even the "durable" water repellents such as Zelan will wear out after two or three proper launderings or three or four proper dry cleanings, so our main concern will be with repellents of the non-durable types. The durable repellents have to be factory applied to the fabric before it is made up. The non-durable types, though they wash out with a single laundering or cleaning can be readily re-applied at home.
Since most items of equipment come treated with one of the durable repellents, the proper care and maintenance of this finish rates first consideration. First of all, there is considerable variation in the effectiveness of the treatment even when it is done to government specifications. Secondly, dirt is the great enemy of water repellent finishes but the durable ones can be re­juvenated by proper cleaning. The usual dry cleaners' solvent contains oil soluble detergents and spotting agents which destroy the repellency. For this reason only pure solvent must be used. Pure Stoddard's solvent is available for the home cleaning job to make sure it is done properly. If the item is washed, only a mild soap, not a detergent, should be used. The item should be agitated as little as possible and it should be rinsed two or three times in clean water. Whether cleaned or washed, ironing with a hot iron for several minutes will do much to restore the repellency.

Now let us assume that the original repellency is gone, which happens rather quickly in the case of nylon tents and clothing. There are two main types of re-treating solutions available in addition to the heavy commercial canvas types. These two types do not actually close the pores and stiffen the fabric as the heavy canvas types do.  One of these types consists of waxes and heavy metal soaps in a solvent. These are easily applied, being sprayed on tents or clothing and brushed on packs. A fair quality repel­lent of this type can be made easily at home by dissolving a pound of paraffin and two ounces of beeswax in a gallon of turpentine. This is done by melting the paraffin over hot water, heating a large pan of water to warm the turpentine out of doors away from any flame and stirring the melted wax into the warm turpentine.

The second type of repellent is an aqueous emulsion of waxes and aluminum salts. Drax is a common repellent of this type. Most dry cleaners use this kind of treatment. The application of this repellent is a little more complicated but results are better for clothing and tents. The treatment is begun by washing the item, using a mild soap. Rinse it well two or three times. The solution is prepared according to the directions on the jar in a ratio of twice the weight of solution to the weight of the fabric. The temperature of the solution should be about 120°F and the item should be soaked and agitated in the solution until the fabric is thoroughly impregnated. The item is then dried at 200°F or hung up until just damp and ironed until dry.

The above treatments are for tent, pack and wind clothing fabrics of cotton, orlon, or nylon. It is also possible to apply a fairly durable repellent treatment to wool which can be renewed after each washing if desired. This was one of the oldest non­durable treatments for cottons but poor performance caused it to fall into disuse until research for the Army Quartermaster re­discovered it as a permanent finish for woolens. The wool fabric is first impregnated for 10-15 minutes with a 0.25% mild soap solution at 100°F and then squeezed out. While still wet it is placed in a 0.1% solution of aluminum sulfate at 135° to 140°F and worked for 15 minutes. It is then removed and allowed to dry. Hard water is detrimental to this treatment. To renew the repellency after subsequent washings in mild soap it is only necessary to add the aluminum sulfate to the rinse water.
There are several other factors beside the treatment technique which affect the repellency of the fabric. One of these is the tightness of the fabric. A fabric with a high porosity cannot be made as repellent as a good closely woven fabric. Thick fabrics are much more resistant to moisture than thin ones, but this of course means added weight. Two layers of fabric, such as tent flies and double panels in clothing, can increase tremendously the total repellency—up to 100 times that of a single layer of the same fabric. This fact gives good reason for the use of double shoulders and other selected portions of outer clothing and for the use of rain flies for tents.

Repellency is measured in several ways and all of them antici­pate an eventual soaking through. Any fabric that is permeable to air and only repellent to water is going to soak through eventual­ly. If the fabric is being worked and rubbed continually the water will soak through sooner than if it is left undisturbed. If the fabric is stretched tight or backed by a hard, non-resilient surface it will soak through sooner than if it has a little give to it. If it is dirty it will soak through sooner than if it is clean. Don't expect the impossible, especially from the extremely light weight fabrics.

SOURCES

Here is a list of sources of supply for the materials described. Fol­lowing the addresses, the suppliers will be listed separately under various materials headings with the specific items they can supply.

GERRY, Box 128, Ward, Colorado—catalog available
HOLUBAR, 1215 Grandview, Boulder, Colorado—catalog avail­able
RECREATIONAL EQUIPMENT INC., 523 Pike St., Seattle 1, Washington—catalog available
THOMAS BLACK & SONS, Scottish Industrial Estate, Port Glasgow, Renfrewshire, Scotland—catalog available
TRAILWISE (The Ski Hut) ,1615 University Ave., Berkeley 3, California—catalog available
SEARS ROEBUCK—local store or mail order catalog
MONTGOMERY WARD—local store or mail order catalog Tent and awning suppliers, yard goods shops, leather wholesalers, luggage shops, marine outfitters, sailmakers, shoe manufacturers and repair shops, harness and saddle shops, mattress and bedding manufacturers, army surplus stores, hardware stores, dry goods departments, handicraft shops, notions department.

Fabrics

GERRY—Nylon Pack Fabric, Quanto Cloth, Zephyr Nylon, Ele­ment Cloth, Orion Whipcord, Wool Kersey, Horcolite, Fiberthin, Nylon Mosquito Netting, Nylon Shoe Mesh.
HOLUBAR—Nylon Pima Cotton, Nylon 11-A (rip stop), Coated Nylon (Horcolite), Army Nylon Duck.
RECREATIONAL EQUIPMENT INC.—Element Cloth, Neo-prene Coated Nylon, Vinyl Coated Nylon, Nylon Mosquito Netting.
THOMAS BLACK & SONS—Egyptian Cotton, Ventile, other pack, tent, and clothing fabrics.
TRAILWISE—French Nylon, Egyptian Cotton, Rip Stop Nylon, Element Cloth, (Wyncol) Nylon Pima, Alpine Nylon, British Duck, Army Duck, Horcolite, Fiberthin, Nylon Mos­quito Netting.
SEARS ROEBUCK
MONTGOMERY WARD
Tent and awning suppliers, yard goods shops, sailmakers, army surplus stores.

Narrow Fabrics

GERRY—Nylon Webbing, Nylon Cord, Nylon Tape, Nylon Shoe Lace Material, Nylon & Dacron Thread.
THOMAS BLACK & SONS—Flax Cord, Linen Tape, Sailmakers Twine.
TRAILWISE—Cotton Webbing various sizes, Nylon Web and Tape.
SEARS ROEBUCK MONTGOMERY WARD
Tent and awning suppliers, luggage shops, mattress and bedding manufacturers, army surplus stores, shoe repair shops.

Insulation

GERRY—White Goose Down, Wool Batting, Ensolite, Polyurethane Foam, Dacron Batting.
TRAILWISE—White Goose Down, Grey Duck Down, Dacron Batting.
SEARS ROEBUCK MONTGOMERY WARD
Dry goods departments, mattress and bedding manufacturers.

Leather

GERRY—Scotch Chrome Leather and Straps, Light Weight Garment Leather.
Leather wholesalers, luggage shops, shoe manufacturers and repair shops, handicraft shops, harness and saddle shops, army surplus stores.

Zippers

GERRY—Size 6 Crown Zippers to length, Size 4 Talon Zippers to length, Separating Zippers to 100", Velcro Self Closing Tape, TRAILWISE—Regular and Separating Zippers to 125".
Notions departments, tent and awning suppliers, luggage shops, army surplus stores.

Hardware

GERRY—Brass  Buckles,  Brass  Snap  Hooks,  Brass Grommets, Zinc Dee Rings, Brass Rivets, Brass Strap Tips (all nickel plated).
THOMAS BLACK & SONS—Grommets, Rings, Snaps,
TRAILWISE—Buckles, Snaps, Snap Hooks, Dee Rings, Grommets, Rivets, Strap Tips, Aluminum Rings,
SEARS ROEBUCK
MONTGOMERY WARD
Notion departments, handicraft shops, tent and awning suppliers, luggage shops, marine outfitters, harness and saddle shops, army surplus stores, hardware stores,

Grommets and washers can sometimes be set in your own items by local Tent and Awning Suppliers, Sailmakers or Luggage Shops. Rivets can sometimes be set by Harness and Saddle Shops, Luggage Shops, Shoe Repair Shops, Heavy duty snaps such as Durable Dots or Lift Dots can usually be purchased and set for you at Tent and Awning Suppliers, Luggage Shops or Convertible Car Top Shops.

Plastics (Fiberglos Reinforced)

Handicraft or plastics shops, marine outfitters (boat covering kits), Sears Roebuck (boat covering kits), Montgomery Ward (boat covering kits).

Water Repellents

GERRY
HOLUBAR
RECREATIONAL EQUIPMENT INC.
THOMAS BLACK & SONS
TRAILWISE
SEARS ROEBUCK
MONTGOMERY WARD
Tent and awning suppliers, marine outfitters, sport shops, army surplus stores.

Tools

GERRY—Grommet Setting, Stitching Awl, Snap Setting.
THOMAS BLACK & SONS—Sewing Palms, Stitching Awl, Grom­met Setting, Snap Setting.
TRAILWISE—Grommet Setting, Hole Punch, Snap Setting.
SEARS ROEBUCK MONTGOMERY WARD
Notions departments, handicraft shops, hardware stores, marine outfitters.

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