V. Tents

Forest Tents | High Altitude Tents | Accessories | Tent Layout | Tent Fabrics | Design Elements in Tents

On the subject of tents there are almost as many opinions as there are tents. They range in size from one the size of a summer cottage, leaving out the circus and carnival variety, to a little tent which is scarcely more than a sleeping bag cover. We assume here that the tent is for back packing which automatically eliminates about 98% of all tents. This does not mean that it need be a tiny flimsy affair, however. Careful choice of materials can provide a tent with a surprising amount of space.

The tents described will be of two main types. The first will be the tent used primarily for shelter from rain and insects in the forest, or at least under moderate temperature conditions. The second type is the tent to be used primarily above timberline, often on snow, winter or summer, under severe climatic condi­tions. Naturally enough, each tent can invade the other's domain —will in fact often be required to do so. However, in choosing the design for a tent its main use must be determined and a de­sign chosen which best fulfills this purpose. Use under other con­ditions will necessitate compromises.

FOREST TENTS

The forest tent can be the lightest possible because it can be made without a floor, it need not close up completely and a single layer of fabric will usually suffice. Some campers even prefer a light tarp to a tent due to the many ways in which it can be pitched to suit conditions. The tarp, however, generally requires more fabric per square foot of coverage than a tent cut specifically for one of these shapes.

The weight of a tent will depend almost entirely on the yardage of fabric it requires. The greatest amount of volume enclosed by the least surface area is a sphere, but although there have been several attempts to make hemispherical tents, the weight of the accouterments necessary to hold this shape has been excessive in small structures. The same is true in semicylindrical shapes such as a quonset hut, but one or two practical solutions have been used with high altitude tents as will be mentioned later.

Next to the semicylindrical shape in volume enclosed per square yard of fabric is the conical shape. This at once brings to mind the tepee of the Indians. In fact there is no tent which will put so much area under cover with so little fabric as a tepee, and it is heartily recommended as a family tent for extended living. The tepee is back packable in diameters up to 16' or 17' if made of 5 ounce fabric; it allows plenty of standing room and a fire can be used inside on rainy days. A better base camp tent couldn't be devised where frequent portability isn't required and the neces­sary poles for setting up are available. Because details of con­struction are covered in most woodcraft books they will not be discussed here.
Next to the tepee in space enclosed is the square pyramidal tent variously known as the "Miner's Tent," "Herder Tent," etc. (See Fig. 1, Plate VII.) This usually requires only a single center pole and can be made any size from 7' x 7' to 14' x 14'. Of the usual back packing tents this design puts the greatest area under cover for the least amount of fabric. The door is a zippered slit in one side and the design is readily adaptable for inclusion of a sewn-in floor and/or insect netting over the door when such protection is needed. It is also a very stable design in a high wind due to the fact that all the walls slope and spill the wind. The steep pitch of the walls means that it will also shed rain efficiently. Interior space can also be enlarged if a pull-out is attached a little way up each center seam. These should not be pulled out too tight, rather just enough to pull out the natural sag.

The Hill and Dale Tent is a variation of the square pyramidal tent, though at first sight it might not appear so. It is approxi­mately one half of the pyramid with a little bit of the other half forming a weather hood over the open side. This makes a lean-to tent with one full side open to the fire but it uses less fabric than a conventional lean-to and is simpler to pitch, requiring only a single pole. The hood gives considerable weather protection and a snap-in floor can be arranged that will also snap part way up the front opening to close it off even further making it completely weather tight and still allowing plenty of ventilation. This de­sign makes one of the roomiest and lightest tents possible. (See Fig. 2, Plate VII.)

The number of various tent designs is legion, therefore we will confine ourselves here to describing those that we feel are best for a particular situation and with which we have had the most experience. The omission of a design does not mean it is no good, and there will be enough information included in the construction details so that a tent of any design can be constructed.

Sometimes the camping plans demand versatility of a tent due to changing weather conditions and variation in number of people it must accommodate. One of the most flexible designs and one of the easiest to make is the Combination Lean-to Tent. Pitched as a lean-to it will accommodate four people and present an open front to the fire with well enclosed ends. With the fly closed down it will hold two and is completely weatherproof. Between these two extremes there is the vestibule arrangement with one end closed down and the other open, which could sleep three, and the common "pup tent" arrangement which is also wide enough for three.  (See Fig. 3, Plate VII.)

The lightest possible tent is one which is cut to fit the occu­pants. Primarily this means tapering one end to take the feet. It can thus be only about 18" high, and if mummy shape sleeping bags are used it can also be only two to two and a half feet wide. The head end should be ample for two shoulders in width and high enough to sit up comfortably. Some additional room is usually required to keep the packs and gear under cover during inclement weather. A one-man tent can be a little narrower but not too much weight can be saved here.

The Yearound Tent is of this tapered design with two features which make it unique. The front of the tent is completely closed with the hood when required leaving no gaping side slits inse­curely tied with strings or closed with heavy zippers. When the hood is pitched out it adds a good deal to the area under cover and further protects with the closed in sides. The second improve­ment over the usual design is the cross ridge at the top which gives more head room than the usual small tent with side walls coming together in a point at the top. With a sewn-in floor this tent can be closed up tight enough for occasional use on snow or above timberline. (See Fig. 4, Plate VII.)

Any of the above described tents can be fitted easily with mos­quito netting for keeping out the insects. Nylon netting cut to fit over the open door is slit up the center and a size 3 zipper in­stalled. When sewing the edges around the door, include a couple of 18" lengths of lace along the sides to tie the netting back out of the way when it's not needed. To get a mosquito-proof seal across the floor, cut the netting 6" to 10" too long. This is lighter and more convenient in small tents than two more zippers. This flap provides plenty of overlap to keep the mosquitoes out. If the bugs are the real eager kind, gaining entrance through the ground, or if the ground is damp, a floor can be sewn or snapped into any of these tents. A tent with a floor is easier to pitch since the exact shape for staking out is determined by the floor. Tents without floors or with snap-in floor should have a 6" to 10" wide flap inside all around the bottom edges with sewn mitered corners to prevent gaps and drafts along the ground.

Water Repellency

The problem of water repellency in a tent deserves special con­sideration along with problems of condensation—a problem of great importance in any fully enclosed tent. With a tarp or tent which is wide open on one whole side a plastic or neoprene coated fabric can be used since there will be enough ventilation to pre­vent condensation of moisture on the inside during a cold night. Coated fabrics have the disadvantage of wearing and cracking. When the coating is worn off there is nothing but a flimsy nylon fabric left. If the worn spot isn't large it can be repaired by re-coating with a vinyl base cement or lacquer which is available in most plastics shops. If the coating is neoprene one of the neoprene rejuvenating products will recondition it. However, if the choice of fabric was not wise and the entire coating weathers and cracks off the tent is ruined.
For areas of heavy rainfall and moderate temperature or for a tent design too small to have a steep slope and enough space to prevent occupants rubbing against the tent walls, the coated fab­rics will probably give the best protection. As the tent becomes larger, however, it is possible to give the walls a steep pitch to shed rain. If the tent design gives the occupants enough room to move around so they do not rub the walls making the water soak through, then a light weight single layer of water repellent fabric will be sufficient.

Nylon will give the strongest lightest tent but it is definitely not a wet weather fabric. Even the best treatments will not re­main on the fabric for as long a time as it will on a good tight cotton. This is especially true if the nylon is being retreated by home methods once the original repellency has worn off.

Rain Fly

One way to beat the water repellency problem in small tents is the use of the rain fly. This fly is pitched over the tent proper, giving protection to the tent from the direct force of the rain. The fly can be of the lightest material because what little rain comes through drips harmlessly onto the tent. The fly can be entirely separate from the tent or it can be an integral part of it, utilizing the same poles and stakes to pitch it. The fly need not cover every square foot of the tent. If the eaves are out far enough so the run off doesn't pour onto the tent they can be quite a bit shorter in length than the sides of the tent.

If there is danger of splashing or if the tent is very small so that sleeping bags are bound to rub the insides of the fabric, the lower walls can be faced inside with a light weight, single coated fabric. This makes a completely waterproof lower portion of the tent and the fly protects the upper portion while still leaving it free to breathe, thus reducing condensation. (See Fig. 5, Plate VII.) If the tent has a vestibule or porch fly of some sort, there is little need to design the rain fly to cover any but that portion of the tent occupied by the sleeping gear. Generally speaking the rain fly is the best way to get a really waterproof tent and at the same time reduce rather than increase the danger of condensation. Both tent and fly should be water repellent but the problem is much less critical and two layers of light weight nylon can often be used with a saving in weight and increase in strength over a single layer of cotton.
Another way to be sure of good wet weather protection is to use a 5 ounce tightly woven cotton fabric. This will take and re­tain almost any kind of water repellent treatment. However, strength is sacrificed despite the additional weight. Nylon does make a fine light weight tent, serviceable in cold weather and all but heavy rain. It can be made to serve in rain if it is constantly retreated with water repellent. If wet weather protection is not important a lighter weight tent is a good bet.

HIGH ALTITUDE TENTS

The second type of tent to be discussed is the high altitude tent, or those tents which are used on snow and in severe weather. They differ from forest tents in that they must close absolutely tight so wind-blown snow will not sift in and so that heat can be conserved. Consideration must be given to this all important conservation of heat. Important details such as arrangements for getting in and out of the tent with bulky clothing, cooking with a gasoline stove inside the tent, drying and storing wet gear and clothing apart from the sleeping equipment, must all receive attention. In some cases stability in a high wind is of special importance since flapping tent walls can make it impossible to cook and sleep for days at a
time. Visibility of the tent from a distance can be extremely im­portant. Needless to say, no compromise with the very finest ma­terials and construction features should be made in tents for use under extreme conditions.

The simplest high altitude tent design is an "A" shape with sewn in floor, ends closed with sleeve doors, and poles along the sides of the "A" at each end. If the ends are slanted in toward one another at the top they not only spill the wind better but also allow a longer floor with a shorter ridge that is less likely to sag. Pull-out flaps on the sides will give a lot more room in the tent by eliminating sag and they will also increase the stability in a wind. (See Fig. 6, Plate VII.)

Flexible wands, one or two, in the center of the tent may be used to eliminate sag and decrease the flapping of tent sides. The wands are almost like another "A" pole as used at each end except that they are spread at a much wider angle than the tent itself at the top and are pulled in at the bottom to conform to the width of the tent floor, thus forming a gothic arch shape with lots of interior room and a good deal less flapping in the wind. The wands can be used either inside the tent, held in position by a loop in the ridge and one near the floor on each side with suitable reinforcing to prevent the lower ends from wearing through the walls, or they can be inserted in a special sleeve sewn to the outside of the tent. (See Fig. 7, Plate VII.)
The "A" poles at either end should have their tops joined se­curely together forming the most rigid bracing possible, a tri­angle. Several methods of joining the tops of the poles are illus­trated. The poles themselves are attached to the tent by passing them through sleeves sewn into the end seams. This eliminates any sagging of the tent between top and bottom of the poles.

Anything exerting a steady pressure on snow will tend to sink down through it. For this reason the bottoms of tent poles should be fastened to the corners of the tent. This makes the entire tent an integral unit and although the whole tent will sink eventually the poles will not disappear the first night out. One of the simplest ways of anchoring the bottoms of the poles to the tent is to com­bine a grommet with the peg loop to accept a short prong in the bottom of the pole. (See Fig. 8, Plate VII.)

Many times a high altitude tent must be pitched on rocky ground where it is impossible to drive stakes, or in such soft snow that even broad snow stakes won't take hold. In this situation it is handy to have a flap about 9" wide running around the entire tent. Rocks or snow can be piled on the flap to hold the tent in position. If wind is allowed to get under the floor of the tent the whole thing, occupants and all, is apt to go blowing across the ground or down the gulch. Even when stakes are well driven it is a good idea to weight this flap to keep the wind from under the floor. When the tent is dug into the snow, however, these flaps should be tucked under the tent if they are not needed since melt water will run down and freeze them in solidly if they are left out. Since this sometimes happens in spite of preventive measures the flap should be made of a plastic coated nylon such as Horcolite so it doesn't absorb water before freezing in. If they have to be cut off to free the tent, they can be replaced easily. All peg loops should be on top of the snow flaps in order to allow the flaps to be tucked under the tent.

Snow melt water can be a problem with a tent set up on snow for any length of time. To help alleviate the inconvenience of moisture coming through where sleeping bags touch the walls the lower 8" or 9" of the tent wall can be protected by a strip of coated fabric. The lightest single coat will do if the coating is sand­wiched between its own base fabric and the tent wall. The coated fabric should be sewn to the inside of the tent so there won't be any seam on the outside to catch run off water and shunt it into the tent.

If it is likely that the occupants of a tent are to be shut up for several days of stormy weather adequate means of ventilation must be provided. A means of opening both ends of the tent can be provided, and at least one of these openings should be in the peak to provide ventilation for the cooking done directly under it. If the cooking is done in front of the door it is convenient to have another door at the opposite end so the cook won't be trampled by his companions going in and out. It's nice to be able to cook directly on the ground or snow rather than the tent floor since stew and sleeping bags make a gooey mixture. A zippered hole in the floor (two 18" zippers meeting at the top of a triangle will usually be sufficient) provides a spot for the stove and kettle to sit. This hole also prevents any spilled fuel from becoming a fire hazard except locally on the bare ground.
An added advantage to having a tent with two doors is that two tents can frequently be set up joined together by one set of doors making living much more agreeable for their joint occupants. If the storm sleeve type of door is used these can be joined success­fully if the tie tapes used to tie them open are at least six in number and are in the same position on each tent. The outside tapes of each tent are tied together closely, then the two sleeves are rolled up together in one roll making a weather proof joint. The inside tapes are then tied together to hold the rolled sleeves. If it is known that tents are usually going to be used together it may be worth while to sew an extension 1½to 2 feet long to the ends of the tents with 2 halves of a separating zipper sewn along the edge of each extension. The flaps are zipped together to form an entrance vestibule or cooking room between the two tents. (See Fig. 10, Plate VII.)

Ingenious use of a two way zipper with several sliders can be made to meet various situations. If the tent is to be used occa­sionally below timberline where a wood fire can be enjoyed it is a great comfort to have the door in one end consist of a couple of zippers down each side. In this manner the end opens up com­pletely. This arrangement can be used at high altitudes where con­densation is a problem, but many climbers consider the possible failure of a zipper too much of a chance to take. When the zipper is used with a vestibule, zipper failure is not so critical. If the simple zipper door is used in one end, this is also a means of join­ing two tents together if separating zippers are used. This type of door provides easy ventilation from the peak of the tent when a small hood is sewn over the outside to keep out the snow and rain.

Vestibules

The vestibule, or separate entry, which gives a space entirely separate from the main sleeping area for storing wet and snowy gear and for cooking is a feature well worth considering. If the size of the tent already includes the extra area, the added weight consists only of an inner curtain, zipper and sill which divide the vestibule from the rest of the tent. Sometimes the vestibule is added on outside the regular end of the tent and can be rolled back and tied up when not in use. When this arrangement is used there are large overlapping flaps instead of a floor at the bottom edges of the vestibule sections. It will probably have two halves joined by a zipper down the ridge between them. One half is staked out permanently, the other half will be used as the door. In other cases the vestibule is the real end of the tent and a light inner curtain is used to separate it from the rest of the tent. This is true if the double walled tent is used. (See Fig. 1, Plate VIII.)

Double Walls

A double walled tent is actually a tent within a tent. Its pur­pose is twofold. The conservation of heat is the first purpose. It does this by using the outer tent fabric to break the force of the wind, with a lighter inner liner keeping the occupants out of contact with the cold outer walls. In order for the two walls to do this efficiently there must be a clear passage for the air between the two walls from the windward to the leeward side of the tent. This air between the walls is not insulation in the usual sense since it is by no means dead air. Rather, the space is used to cut down the forced air penetration present with any porous fabric when there is wind pressure on one side and not on the other. Normally in a single wall tent the cold wind filters in the wind­ward side and a like amount of warm air filters out the leeward side. In a proper double walled tent the cold air comes in the windward side and passes around the inner tent, exerting very little pressure on it, and then passes out through the leeward side. The warm air remains undisturbed inside the inner tent.

If the tent is made double walled in panels, with no escape for the incoming cold air, it would be forced to pass through the in­ner layer into the warm interior. Double layers would increase the resistance to air passage but would not be as efficient as the use of the tent within a tent allowing for the passing through of air between the layers.

The inner layer of a double tent is subject to much less wind pressure than the outer wall and can be made of the very lightest material.

The suspension of the inner tent inside the outer can be a source of much confusion and should be kept as simple as possible. Sewing or snapping the two walls together around the floor helps to make a simple unit of the two tents. If the tent is of the or­dinary "A" shape, the ridge of the inner tent can be stretched and held by two straps and buckles, or tie cords, from the peaks of the outer tent. The outer tent is generally the one pitched, with the liner suspended inside from it. If wands are used they will tend to give plenty of space between inner and outer tents because the sag of the outer wall will be pulled out and the inner will sag in slightly. This is fine for sleeping and keeping warm because it reduces the amount of area inside the tent to be heated. However, for other operations it cramps the space and it is a good idea to use a couple of tie-backs along each spreader wand to pull the sag of the liner up to meet the outer wall.   These tie-backs can be pieces of cotton lace sewn to the outer fabric at the same time the outside sleeves for the wands are sewn on so that the strain on them will be transferred directly to the wands. These tie-backs pass through a small hole in a leather washer sewn to the inner fabric. This arrangement usually provides enough friction to hold the liner back out of the way at any position desired. If wands are not used, the liner tie-backs can be installed at every outside guy line point. (See Fig. 2, Plate VIII.)
Floors

Tent floors, especially when they are intended for use in wet weather and on snow, should be of a coated fabric. The floor of course takes a lot of hard wear. Using a coated fabric durable enough to remain completely waterproof for the life of a good nylon tent would add a lot of unnecessary weight. The floor is a very easy part of the tent to replace, the center being the part which receives the most wear. The center can be cut out to with­in 2" or 3" of the sides and a new piece, cut a little oversize, can be sewn in with two rows of stitching on a 1" overlap. Though it is necessary to have a floor that water won't soak through, unless you are sitting in a puddle of water, a few small holes and worn spots in the coating will never be noticed. It should never be necessary to use a floor fabric heavier than 8 ounce and if it's not too much trouble to renew the floor more often a lot of weight can be saved through the use of a light single coated fabric such as 3 ounce Horcolite. When a single coated fabric is used place the coating on the inside of the tent. This not only saves it from abrasion by rocks and dirt but also helps sleeping bags stay put. Nothing is more annoying than a slippery nylon bag on a slippery nylon floor that slants slightly in one direction. It can make ene­mies out of the best of friends as they spend the night slipping to­gether into one corner of the tent.

In view of the serious consequences of a fouled zipper on a high altitude tent only Crown zippers should be used and these kept to a minimum. Even a Crown zipper can ice up. Some people consider that a wide cover flap over the zipper is an advantage in that it helps prevent snow from being blown through the zipper, and in case of zipper failure it can be snapped or pinned shut. However the flap itself is a source of possible fouling and we per­sonally install zippers in the clear with nothing covering them. If there is a failure the zipper tapes can still be overlapped and pinned. Since we have been setting zippers in the clear, in straight lines from one tension point to another, there have been no re­ports of fouled zippers. Size 5 zippers should be used except possibly inthe light weight liner of a double walled tent or on a mosquito netting closure where size 3 can be used.
Peg Loops

Points of considerable strain on a tent are the peg loops. These should be made of nylon where possible. On light weight tents not used in winter storms a good replaceable peg loop can be made by tying a 4" loop of nylon cord and inserting it through a no. 1 grommet from inside. The knot keeps it from coming through and the loop is easily replaced when worn. A heavy hem, strip of webbing or other strong reinforcing should be sewn around the tent floor to take the grommets.

For a snowproof peg loop nylon webbing should be used. It is sewn to the floor which is first reinforced with a strong patch. This construction is durable enough to last for years, unless the pegs become frozen in and the loops have to be cut. Methods of sew­ing peg loops to corners or along the straight are shown in Fig. 8, Plate VIII. Since the peg loops are usually the primary means of holding the tent in position against all the elements care must be taken to distribute the strain over a large area of the floor by use of reinforcing patches and very careful stitching so that no one stitch is out of line in a position where it will take up the strain be­fore the other stitches thus starting a rip in the fabric. (See Fig. 3, Plate VIII.)

ACCESSORIES

We have mentioned accessories for tents such as poles, wands and pegs. They are extremely important to the back packer. Since we are interested in light weight equipment only aluminum or magnesium poles will be described. It should be pointed out that when camping is done in timber it is often possible to cut poles or rig some type of suspension from the trees so that poles should not be considered as an essential item of equipment. Two pairs of skis and poles will pitch a small tent quite satisfactorily. Happily, commercial sizes of aluminum tubing are very adaptable to several types of poles. The ends for the poles will depend upon the type of tent with which they are to be used. The major prob­lem to be solved is how to make the pole sections short enough to be carried in the pack. For small tents 6061-T6 aluminum tubing, ⅝"outside diameter with .028 wall thickness, makes a fine light pole with ample strength in lengths up to 5½or 6 feet. For joints anything 9/16" outside diameter will make an easy slip fit inside the tubing. Joints 4" long with 1¾"permanently riveted on one length of tubing will leave 2¼"protruding to form the joint. One of the best materials for the joint is light walled brass tubing. An aluminum to aluminum sliding joint is too easily scored and can easily freeze together so it can't be taken apart. The hard brass slides easily on the aluminum. If these particular sizes of tubing are not available others can be used as long as the outside diameter of the joint material is .007 to .010 less than the inside diameter of the pole material. The joints, and whatever end fixtures are devised, can be held in position by drilling through the tubing and joint with a small drill. A small nail is inserted, cut off flush and peened over.
For larger tents a telescoping sectioned pole can be made as easily as the sectioned pole. The following sizes of 6061-T6 alu­minum tubing will all fit into one another for an easy slip joint: ¾", ⅞", 1", 1⅛", 1¼". All these sizes are 6061-T6, .058 wall alu­minum tubing. Poles made of such telescoping sections are also easily made adjustable. The sections must slip into one another at least 4". About 4" from the top end of the outside pole at each joint, drill a ⅛"hole through both sides of the tubing. Three or four holes are drilled an inch apart below the first hole. A nail, a bit smaller than these holes, with the point cut off, will slip through these holes supporting the upper section of the joint. Each section adjusts about 3 or 4 inches. (See Fig. 4, Plate VIII.)

The smallest diameter tubing is used for the top section and each section graduated one size larger down the pole. A two foot length is about the maximum convenient for back packing, but they should be as long as possible since the more joints there are, the more wobble there is in the pole. To prevent their loss the pins for each joint can be tied on a long cord which will reach from joint to joint on the pole. A small bit of rubber can be pierced and pushed on the end of each pin when it is in position on the pole to prevent snags and scratches.

Telescoping poles should never be carried all telescoped to­gether since the smallest piece of dirt or a slight dent or bend will leave a nice compact bundle of pole sections that can't be sepa­rated. When they are packed each section should be placed in the section two sizes larger. This will make two bundles instead of one but there will be no danger of their sticking together.

Spreader wands for a tent can be of any light flexible material. Since these have only to hold the fabric out and stiffen it against the wind they can be very light and thin. They should be sec­tional and the sections should be the same length as the tent poles so they will pack together nicely.

Very small aluminum tubing, less than ¼" in diameter, will make an acceptable wand. Joints and the angle piece that form the top of the arch can be made of brass rod. This will probably have to be turned down to the proper diameter in a lathe as the various diameters in the smaller sizes of aluminum tubing do not fit together as conveniently as the larger sizes used for poles.

One of the better wand materials is fiberglas such as fishing rods are made of. An easy way to get a first class wand is to buy two very cheap fiberglas fishing rods and cut the sections down to the proper size. If a one-piece rod is cheapest it can be cut into sec­tions and regular fishing rod ferrules used to join them. Some supply houses can furnish the bare fiberglas blanks for fishing rods at considerably less cost than the completed rods. A thin strip split out of a piece of bamboo also makes a fair wand if it is large enough to take fishing rod ferrules to hold the sections to­gether. The fixture holding the wands together at the top should be bent at a greater angle than the angle of the tent walls and it should be fastened securely to the ridge of the tent to prevent its loss and to keep the ridge from sagging.
Pegs are the last items of equipment to be considered with tents. If the tent is to stay below timberline and if time is not at a premium, there is no reason to carry any pegs since they can be cut from small sticks on the spot. Considerable time in setting up camp can be saved if at least the key pegs are carried. A good peg for dirt can be made from ⅝" to ¾"diameter tubing with one end cut square and the other at a long angle. A notch can be cut to retain the tent peg loop. This will hold nicely in fairly soft ground and can be driven in relatively hard ground too. For frozen or rocky ground nothing works quite as easily as a length of ¼"or 3/16" steel rod with a loop on one end and a sharp point on the other. If this is to be driven in very hard ground it is a good idea to have the top loop welded shut so it won't flatten when pounded. Another method is to use a straight piece of rod with a washer welded near the top to hold the tent peg loop.

For use on soft snow or sand a peg with much more area is needed since the ground offers very little resistance. This kind of peg is best made by a tin smith from .051 or .040 thick 2024-T3 aluminum sheet.  The blank can be cut on a squaring shears and the angles then bent in a brake. Care should be taken that the bends are on a large radius (at least ⅛") as a sharp bend will cause the hard aluminum to crack. If these stakes are driven in the ground at an angle nothing is needed at the top to hold the peg loop. However, it is a good idea to drill a large hole near the top, about ½"in diameter. This hole can be used to tie down the tent peg loop if the stake can't be driven at enough of an angle. If the tent is pitched on snow it is very convenient to have the hole there to hook the ice ax or ski pole point through in order to break out the frozen stakes. (See Fig. 5, Plate VIII.)

There are various other convenient tent accessories as shown in Figs. 6 and 7, Plate VIII.

TENT LAYOUT

Tents are usually laid out as a series of triangles for convenience. As elementary geometry shows, given the length of three sides, only a specific triangle can result without any regard to the angles involved. Any figure with more than three sides can take any shape unless one or more of the angles is also known. However, a figure with more than three sides can be laid out as several ad­joining triangles.
To lay out a triangle mark off the length of one of the sides as a baseline. The lengths of the other two sides are measured off on two straightedges. One end of each is made to touch each end of the baseline; the other two measured lengths meet at the apex of the triangle. Another method for measuring off a triangle is to use a wire or a piece of fishline (not string—too stretchy) in the same way a compass was used in grade school.

TENT FABRICS

Suitable fabric for specific tents depends on many factors. Un­less very rainy weather in a fairly warm climate is encountered, coated fabrics are to be avoided due to condensation. A good tightly woven 5i/£ ounce cotton fabric with a water repellent finish will shed water almost as efficiently as a coated fabric, espe­cially if the pitch is steep and the tent large enough to prevent the occupants rubbing against the inside. The cotton also has the ad­vantage of being inexpensive and is highly recommended as a "first" project or a pilot model of a new design. Cotton should never be left rolled up damp or it will mildew.

For the very lightest weight and greatest durability nylon is the fabric. Nylon does not readily absorb moisture and therefore deposits any condensation on the occupants in a most disagreeable manner. So, as we have said, nylon is definitely not the best wet weather tent fabric. It is difficult to get water repellent to stick to the nylon for more than a season. However, in large tents with a steep pitch to the walls a single layer of light nylon will turn a good deal of rain and makes a very satisfactory tent, cutting the weight by about half.

To improve the situation where condensation and water repellency are concerned in small tents, the double wall principle can be used with an outer rain fly. In both cases the very lightest nylon fabric will do the job and the results will be superior to a single layer of cotton. Total weight of both tent and liner or fly can be less than 4 ounces with greater durability for the main tent than if it is made of 5½ ounce cotton. This combination is very expen­sive and should be used only for the ultimate in light weight weatherproof tents.

DESIGN ELEMENTS IN TENTS

There are some elements of design common to all tents. These are mainly concerned with the distribution of strain from the points at which it is applied to a wide enough area so that the rela­tively fragile fabric can accept it without tearing. In the case of any tent that is held up with one pole, the peak of the tent where the pole supports it must withstand all of the strain imposed by the weight of the fabric, the pull of the guy lines and the wind or snow load. Needless to say this can mount up considerably and for this reason the peak should be well reinforced. In commercial tents of this type it is customary to hand sew a ring in the top with a hole for the spike in the top of the pole. This introduces a point of possible failure and a better way to meet the situation is to design the top of the pole as a truncated conical section without spike. The top of the tent can then be sewn completely closed with a small piece of soft leather in the tip of the peak to take the abrasion of the pole top. This makes a very strong weatherproof peak.
Tent walls often have attachments for guy lines to pull the sag out. An ordinary loop of web sewn directly to the fabric will very shortly rip out. The spot should be reinforced by a circular patch sewn to the tent fabric inside. This spreads the strain from a single point to a large circle to the single layer of fabric.

Another method of distributing this strain is to include in either a horizontal or a vertical seam a triangular flap of fabric with a grommet or web loop for the guy line at its apex and the base sewn into the seam. The weave of the fabric should be paral­lel to the base. This puts the two edges on a bias cut and allows them to stretch slightly so that the greatest strain is transferred to the tent at the center of the flap and gradually tapers off toward the ends. It is wise to plan to have the seams in the tent walls come at the right place to receive such pull out flaps.

A well designed and economical use of fabric sometimes neces­sitates piecing. The question of piecing the tent with vertical or horizontal seams can depend upon the stresses encountered, since the thickness and rows of stitching of a felled seam can be used as extra strong points to accept lines of stress as introduced by peg loops, guy lines, and poles. Another point to be considered in deciding how to piece the widths of fabric together is the water shedding abilities of the seams. Water will tend to run down ver­tical seams and may start to soak through near the bottom. Hori­zontal seams, properly felled so they lap like a shingle roof (felled up on the inside), will shed all the water collected on the fabric above. If these seams are always placed as high on the tent as pos­sible a relatively small amount of water will pass over any one spot in the seam. If any trouble is encountered with seams leaking, they will have to be treated with a water repellent after the tent is constructed.

All tents contain points and lines of concentrated stress and after a certain length of time the fabric will stretch and reach its elastic limit along these lines and points and finally tear. To pre­vent this such points and lines are reinforced. Theoretically the reinforcing should have the same or a lower elasticity than the fabric and a higher strength. This insures that the reinforcing really accepts the load before the fabric and that it is strong enough to hold it without tearing. Of course, the fabric can be reinforced with another piece of itself which, if sewn on very smoothly so the two layers accept equal portions of the strain, will double the strength at that point.
In the case of point stresses, such as the peg loops, guy line at­tachments and ridge peaks where the tent is held up by its poles, the reinforced area should extend back quite a distance from the actual point of stress so as to distribute this stress over a wide area before it is passed on to the single layer of fabric. In the case of a pyramidal tent where the entire weight is born on one pole by the peak of the tent, the peak itself may be double thickness for a foot down, three thicknesses at the top six inches and even four thickness the top two inches. This reinforcing gradually dissipates the strain from the point of the peak to about a four foot long line where it is finally passed on to the single layer of fabric.

Stress lines such as may exist between two guy lines at the ends of a ridge or between the top of a pole at a tent peak and the pegs holding it out can be reinforced with light tape (must not be stretchy), or, in light tents, a felled seam can be designed into the tent along this line, thus helping the stress line accept consider­ably more strain than the bare fabric would take.

Any time something has to be sewn to the tent such as a sleeve for an end pole, a pull out flap that can't be included in a seam, etc., a tape should first be sewn to the inside along this line of strain, or the piece in question should be sewn on along the center of a felled seam, never to the bare fabric without reinforcing.

To make a tent that pitches smoothly and tightly without wrinkles is an accomplishment that not only adds to the beauty of the tent but also adds practical value in that there are no wrinkles to catch and hold snow and rain, or more seriously to indicate localized strain. To help accomplish this, seams should be sewn without shirring and everything should be carefully cut to come out the proper length along joining seams, so no tucks have to be made for adjustment. The trick is to make every inch accept its share of the strain and no more.

Any line stretched between any two points, not directly above one another, will tend to sag from its own weight. All tent ridges hang in a slight curve and the fabric sags. To attempt to combat this by stretching the ridges very tightly puts an enormous strain on the tent. An easier solution is to design a little sag into these ridges. The "designed-in" sag eliminates the extra fabric that made the wrinkles and the wall remains flat and true. The amount of curve for these ridges is about ¼"per foot of ridge (a 6' ridge dips about 1½" in the middle). The curve can be laid out with a flexible strip of wood or metal—smoothly connecting the three points of ridge ends and the center point. (See Fig. 8, Plate VIII.)
With practice on an inexpensive material the novice or the man with a new idea should be able to come up with a superior tent based on these facts.

Mountain Tent

List of Materials

Tent fabric—8 yards of 42" or 8½ yards of 39"
Floor fabric—3 yards of 44" or 3½ yards of 38"
34" Tape—6 feet
3/4" Webbing—15" plus 24"
Grommets—6
Zippers—2, 51", open one end
The above will make the basic tent with one zipper door. For optional extras and materials required, see below.
Options:
Rain fly—this requires 7 yards of the lightest possible water re­pellent or coated fabric about 40" wide and includes double ends and side walls 9" or more up on the inside of the tent. The edges are bound with 15 feet of ¾" tape.
Storm sleeve door and vent—this requires l½ yards more tent fabric and 9 feet of lace. Cooking hole in floor—requires 2-28" zippers. Aluminum poles—requires 204" of ⅝" diameter aluminum tub­ing.

Instructions

1. Read "Layout and Sewing" to familiarize yourself with the operations and terms used.

2. Piece and cut two canopy parts no. 1. The lower piece of the wall is the full fabric width and the upper part is pieced. It is helpful to mark out the exact shape on the floor in chalk, place the fabric over it and cut to shape. The two main lower wall parts are cut from the fabric, nesting the angles, then the two end parts no. 2 are cut also nesting the angles. The piecing on the ends no. 2 is also done at the top. After cutting these 4 main parts, two long strips of sufficient width to more than piece out the canopy parts are cut a little extra long. These are sewn with a finished felled seam to the top edges of the lower canopy parts. Fell the seam up on the inside. Lay the full canopy blank over the accurate outline on the floor, stretching the piecing seam and tacking to the floor if necessary. Trim the pieced section to exact shape. Use the same method for the other canopy and the two ends. The rest of the pieces are cut as needed.

3. Mark inside the canopy parts for the pull-outs and sew a length of tape on top of this line plus 1" added to each end.  Sew both edges of the tape. Cut out two pull out parts no. 3 with the goods parallel to the long side. Hem the two short sides with a ¾" plain hem and set a grommet backed by a leather washer in the point of the two hems. Using a top stitched seam, but folded over once more so there are no raw edges, sew the long edge of the pull-out flaps to the outside of the canopy. Sew right between the two lines of stitching for the backing tape. Stitch back and forth at each end several times.
4. Cut 4 peak reinforcing patches from scraps about 6" long on a side. Sew these with a top stitched seam up into the top corners of the canopy parts, on the inside.

5. Join the ridges of the 2 canopy parts with a finished felled seam including the peak reinforcing patches. The patches should lie flat and smooth so they will accept the strain with the tent fabric. It is useful to include a few little loops of lace when felling the ridge as they are handy to use as hangers inside the tent.

6. Optional—if the tent is to be used in snow or with a rain fly the lower inside walls should be faced with a strip of the lightest coated fabric about 9" high.  Sew the top edge of this with a top stitched seam across the canopy part inside.   If a single coated fabric is used place the coating against the tent fabric.   Do the same for the two ends.

7. Assemble the zipper door by sewing the zippers up the two side edges of one end part no. 2.  Sew them so the zipper edge is even with the fabric edge for the first stitching and then roll the surplus fabric, or trim it off and top stitch with the second seam. See cross section detail Fig. 1. The ends of the zipper metal should be ½"short of the edges of the original end part. Cut vent part no. 4 and hem the bottom edge around a piece of ¾" web. Stitch several times through the web. Sew this roughly over the peak of the zippers so the web bows out. The measured length of each side from zipper bottom to top corner of vent part should be 50" to 51".

8. Cut the top off the other end part so its side edges are 50" to 51" long. The flat top of the end is about 1" wide.

9. Optional—a door may be installed in the other end too. For warm weather use another full opening zipper door can be made as in step no. 7. For high altitude or winter use, a storm sleeve can be installed. Simply cut a round or pear shaped hole in the end and mark in 6 equally spaced places around its edge. The sleeve should be a piece long enough to go around the hole, also marked to match the hole marks. The width of the sleeve piece should be 7" longer than the maximum radius of the hole (farthest out point to the center). Join the ends of the sleeve together to form a tube and sew the marked edge around the hole making the key marks match and at each key mark include one 9" length of lace on the outside and one on the inside. These are used to tie the sleeve back or join two tents by their sleeves. Use a finished hem seam. A plain hem 1" wide is sewn around the outer edge of the sleeve with a leather grommet at the top. Thread in a drawstring. A 5" diameter sleeve vent can be installed the same way in the peak.
10. Optional—the tent may be pitched by tying the peaks between 2 trees but if above timberline, "A" poles at each end are recommended. These can be of ⅝" diameter aluminum tubing, 51"
long, with a spike at the bottom and an eye or fork for the guy line at the top. Stout fiberglas fishing rod sections with ferrule joints make good poles too. Poles will require sleeves in the end seams of the tent for best results. These sleeves are 4 strips of fabric, cut 6" x 36" with the two ends hemmed. They are folded into long tubes and their edges pinned to the 4 end edges of the canopy parts so they will be included in the end seams when the ends are sewn to the canopy.

11. To sew the ends in, start at a bottom corner and use a finished felled seam, felled toward the canopy. Pin the seams first to be sure the peak will come out at the ridge because the ends are cut on the bias and will stretch if not controlled. Sew with the canopy on top and the end underneath. In the case of the zipper end, the edge of the zipper tape is ¼" back from the rough edge of the canopy. Before starting, cut two 12" lengths of web and include these at the peaks so 2" tails extend inside and a 4" long loop extends out­ side. The tails are well anchored to the ridge when felling this seam. See detail Fig. 2.

12. Cut and piece the floor part no. 5 to size. Sew reinforcing patches across each corner.

13. Optional—If a cooking hole is deisred, install two 28" zippers to meet at the point of an equilateral triangle.

14. Optional—If snow flap are desired, cut enough strips about 9" wide of light weight and preferably coated material to go along each side of the tent, 4" short of each corner. Hem these on 3 sides and pin along the floor edges so they will be included in the seams.

15. Sew the floor into the tent with a finished felled seam, felled toward the floor. Pin in position first and if the floor is too big trim to match the tent sides.

16. Sew 9" lengths of ¾" web, preferably nylon, into the corners for peg loops. See Fig. 3. Hand sew with heavy nylon thread or fishline. If poles are to be used, set a grommet in one side of the peg loops, very close to the tent to take the spike of the pole. 16. Optional—A rain fly is made quite simply by cutting two panels as indicated for part no. 6 from the very lightest coated or repellent fabric. The long edges have tape sewn to them with a grommet or loop in the center for a guy line. The ends are sewn on top of the end seams of the tent with a top stitched seam. This could be included when sewing the ends into the canopy but it is complicated for the beginner to keep track of all the layers.

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