VI. CLOTHING

General Clothing | Wild Protection | Insulation | Hands | Feet | Rain Protection

In hiking, climbing and camping, clothing assumes an impor­tance we almost forget during the course of our centrally heated, aircooled, automobile-run lives. The torture of a large blister on a heel or the misery caused by a sudden snow or rain squall in the high country with improper clothing has to be lived through only once before attention to proper clothing becomes second nature.

GENERAL CLOTHING

A good wool shirt is a must for any outfit even in summer when it can act as a jacket, sweater and windbreaker. Pure wool, or some of the wooly synthetics such as orlon or dacron, are best for these shirts. The fuzzy type of wool or synthetic fabric makes the warmest shirt when worn under a windbreaker, but is not it­self very windproof. Therefore its usefulness as a windbreaker is limited. Wool kersey and doeskin have a heavily felted surface making them more wind resistant but they will not have the in­sulating qualities of the fuzzy fabric. The end use will determine what fabric is to be used, but for wind breaking or warmth the fabric should be 14 ounce or heavier. This weight is expressed in ounces per running yard of 60" wide material.

A regular dressmaking shirt pattern in the proper size and of the general cut desired makes the best pattern for a wool shirt. A sport shirt pattern is more satisfactory than a dress shirt pattern. There should be fullness across the back to allow for plenty of arm freedom and the sleeves should be cut almost straight out from the body. Changes can be made easily in this pattern to allow for individual tastes in details. For instance, the shirt tails will probably be eliminated in favor of a square cut so the shirt can be worn outside the pants like a jacket on occasion. The slit at the cuff can be eliminated and an adjustable snap strap cuff added for versatility. (See Fig. 1, Plate IX.) Pockets can be installed to suit individual preferences and elbow patches for long wear can be added.

One change which makes a very versatile jacket shirt is the elimination of the collar and substitution of a regular parka hood.

The parka hood pattern at the end of this chapter is very suitable. The neck opening o£ the shirt pattern should be cut to match the shape of that in the parka so that it will take the hood. Both old and new neck holes should start at the same point at the back of the neck, but the hole for the hood will of course come way down in front. There is nothing quite so handy as having a nice warm woolen hood to keep the wind off the neck or to use as a warm lining for the light weight wind parka hood when necessary. Un­der a rain hat, for instance, this hood absolutely prevents those stray trickles finding their way down the back of the neck.

Climbing and hiking pants require an entirely different fabric than that used for shirts. They take much more wear and the fabric must be more abrasion resistant. The fabric should be hard surfaced, such as whipcord or twill, so it will wear well and won't tend to pick up snow as the fuzzy fabrics will. Wool and the wool-like synthetics are good for these pants too, even in summer, espe­cially if rain is encountered. Nothing is quite so clammy as a pair of wet jeans unless the air is very warm. However, cotton jean material, or uniform twill, is a good inexpensive summer pant fabric. Since strength and durability are very important in pants fabrics a very high percentage of nylon, dacron, or orlon blends can be used. Some of the pure wool-like synthetics are much stronger than wool, especially when wet, and still have the per­formance of wool under most conditions, such as feeling warm when wet. As with the wool shirt pattern, here again it is con­venient to get a commercial sport slack pattern to begin the proj­ect. Except for the general cut of the pants and the fly details, the commercial pattern will probably be abandoned in favor of one's own innovations.

The waistband should be wide and sturdy. A double thickness of the same pants fabric is very good. This should be cut 2" deep so as to accommodate the widest belts. Sturdy belt loops, one on each hip and two in front, with a wide tunnel across the back, will support the pants comfortably without sagging no matter how much junk is in the pockets.

Pockets are more of a problem than at first appears. Ordinary pockets as shown on a slacks pattern might do for some hiking pants. These should be made considerably larger, down to full fingertip length (but no longer), and of an extra durable fabric such as nylon, or at least of the same fabric as the pants.

For rough going, or long trips away from civilization, it is a good idea to have one or all of the pockets made with some kind of closure so valuables (including compass and matches) won't be lost should a dunking in a creek or some such mishap take place— and they will take place! Zippers make a fine positive closure and are easy to put in. They can be hard on hands, especially cold chapped hands, so several things are done to alleviate the scratch­ing. First, Crown zippers or others that are especially smooth are used. Second, the zipper is sewn into the slit in the pants fabric first. The pocket can be sewn in behind it with the zipper finish­ing seam. Third, take tucks in the pants fabric above each front pocket when the waistband is put on. Fourth, use 8" zippers. This arrangement allows the pockets to open wide and actually separate an inch or so with the outer zipper edge turned away from the opening and thus the zipper hardly touches the hands.

The other method of closing pockets is with a button or snap down flap. The flaps are made of two layers of fabric stitched around and turned inside out. For hip pockets a simple button or snap across the center of the opening keeps large objects from slipping out. (See Fig. 2, Plate IX.)

The placement of pockets is left a good deal to personal taste. However, if much weight is to be carried in the pockets (any­thing heavier than a wallet and some change for instance) it is carried much more easily when it is suspended from the waist. This means to beware of those convenient looking pockets found on the outside leg of some old Army pants! These pockets can be loaded easily with a pound or two of junk which has to be lifted with the knee at every step. Quartermaster figures show that one pound carried here consumes as much energy as three pounds carried on the back and they have abandoned this design. Loose pockets hung inside the pants will tend to hang from the belt and let the knee and thigh slide up past them. If two side pockets and two hip pockets are made 8" wide and fingertip length there will be an adequate amount of pocket space. A small watch pocket with a good closure is useful for a watch or compass. If pockets are nearly always left open a small simple patch pocket with snap top can be sewn to the inside surface of one of the reg­ular pockets.

The seat of the pants takes a lot of wear even if hiking is the main idea. An added layer of fabric takes this wear. The extra layer over the seat also makes sitting on the cold ground more comfortable. The best way to add this thickness to the pants is to duplicate the shape of the pattern for the rear halves from about an inch or two below the waistband to about one inch below the crotch. These patches are sewn to the original pieces on the in­side with a stitch across the top edge and bottom edge before as­sembling the whole pieces into pants. For winter use the same thing can be done over the thigh to give warmth. These pieces should be extended down several inches below the knees up to the crotch for added durability.

For climbers, rappel patches of soft chrome garment leather can be sewn under the thigh before the pants are assembled. These should be sewn on with heavy cotton thread as nylon will melt under the heat caused by the friction of the rope.

The cuffs of pants present several problems and several styles are usually necessary to satisfy all conditions. A simple hem one inch wide will suffice for most general use. For skiing the lower leg is tapered to a snug fit around the ankle and socks and then flared out a little. A slit is made up the inseam so the foot can go through the narrow part. If this slit has to extend up past the boot top it should be backed by a fabric gusset to keep the snow out. Be careful not to have any hard or bulky seams in the area of the ankle bone as they become very uncomfortable after a few hours of skiing. This conventional ski pant bottom will not keep snow out of the boot top and this can mean cold wet socks and feet during extended trips. Separate anklets to keep snow out of boots will be described later, but the same idea can be sewn right into the pants—a double cuff, one going inside the boots and a second larger cuff sewn to the pants a couple of inches above the boot top with an elastic bottom that comes down well over the boot top. A large hook-eye hook can be sewn to the front edge to hook under the ski boot lace to keep the cuff down. This is a bet­ter method than a strap under the foot which soon wears out. (See Fig. 3, Plate IX.)
For general mountaineering, where a hot walk in on forest trails can be followed by several hours climbing in snow, some­times knee deep, the pants cuff problem is not so easy to solve. Shorts can be used for the hike in and ski pants for the climb, but this means the extra weight of two pairs of pants. Long pants can be fitted with snaps that allow the pants to be tucked up inside themselves forming knee length shorts. This leaves the long pants for the cooler high altitudes. If a drawstring is installed in the pants cuff, a hook sewn to the front, and the pants cut long enough, a fairly snowproof closure at the boot can be made by tying the drawstring up tight and hooking the hook under the boot lace to keep the pants down.  This pattern which makes pants suitable for winter climbing can also be used for summer hiking. (See Fig. 4, Plate IX.)

WIND PROTECTION

The outer layer of any outfit is the windproof layer. Although any type of jacket can be used for an outer garment as long as it is of a tightly woven, water repellent fabric, a hood is highly recom­mended. A collar is of limited usefullness for protection from weather while a well designed hood can be worn to give varying degrees of protection. The design of the jacket itself is a matter of personal preference as to pockets, drawstrings, zippers and such. A pullover design with a short zipper at the neck for ventilation is the most weatherproof design. However, for warm weather, the full length zipper that opens the front completely is preferred by many. Where there is concern over possible zipper failure a double zipper can be installed. The inside of either a short or full length zipper should be covered by a flap to keep the cold metal off the skin.

Generally speaking, the parka should carry no insulation itself. It should be of the lightest wind proof material so that it can be worn over whatever amount of insulation weather conditions call for at the moment. If a very light material is used, a double layer over the chest and back can be utilized to give added wind protec­tion and at the same time to form two large pockets between the layers. The pocket across the back is useful for carrying a surpris­ing amount of gear when a pack is not carried, such as ski climbers, lunch, etc. The large front pocket is used for often needed items. If the parka is of the pullover type a kangaroo pocket is very con­venient as the entire contents of the oversize pocket can be seen at a glance. Sometimes a large number of small pockets is more con­venient. In this case patch pockets with zippers or flaps can be sewn all over the parka including the sleeves. For any parka it is a good idea to make the yoke over the shoulders and the center panel of the hood of double thickness since these two places re­ceive the worst of it in a rain and soak through the quickest. Double layers give many times the repellency of a single layer.
The parka, being the windproof layer, must have a means of closing off the openings at wrists and waist. A drawstring at the waist will do the job here. If the parka has an extra long skirt a drawstring in the bottom may be desirable. Another method of handling the long skirt so it gives some protection in a wind is to snap it between the legs forming short pants out of the bottom of the parka. Take care not to cut the skirt so long that it binds when a high step is taken.

The waist drawstring is a good place to use the drawstring clamp described under Pack Accessories. This clamp eliminates fumbling with a tie drawstring under difficult conditions. If the parka has a full length zipper the ends of the drawstrings can be anchored at the zipper and the free ends brought through the drawhem at the center of the back. If a section of elastic is put in each side of the drawstring it can be tied to just the proper size and will be all adjusted whenever the parka is zipped up. This saves lots of tying across the front every time the parka is zipped.

The closure of the parka cuffs can be handled several ways. Simplest of these methods is an elastic in the cuff hem. This gives windproof closure but has two serious drawbacks. It does not al­low any ventilation. As pointed out under sleeping bags, ventila­tion of fresh air is important in keeping moisture out of the in­sulation and therefore the cuff closure should be adjustable. The other disadvantage of the elastic cuff is that those portions of the fabric that are bunched outward will wear out very quickly. Some sort of adjustable strap around the cuff with either a series of snaps or a regular strap and buckle is a more practical arrange­ment. A variation on the elastic cuff is the addition of a knitted wristlet, though this does not provide ventilation either. It is possible to knit the wristlet so that there is a hole for the thumb allowing it to cover the fingers to the first joint. This feature often outweighs the lack of ventilation. It makes a fine cold weather rock climbing arrangement and also holds the cuffs down inside the mittens for a wind and snowproof joint. Separate ventilating zippers can be sewn in the sleeves just above the cuff.
A very useful method of cuff closure is the use of friction tabs and cords. A small tab is cut of soft leather, and a drawhem with the tab on the inside of the wrist, is sewn around the cuff about one inch from the edge. A spun nylon boot lace, or other rough cord is threaded through the friction tab. This cuff is closed by pulling the knotted cord ends out along the hand, and opened by pulling the leather tab out away from the wrist. Friction of the tab on the cords holds it in any position. (See Fig. 1, Plate IX.)

If much rappelling is to be done in the parka, especially if the parka is nylon, a leather rappel patch should be sewn over one shoulder, with a flap extending up the neck, using cotton thread. The heat from the sliding rope will often melt nylon fabric andin any case causes undue wear.

The parka should be cut full enough to be loose over the maxi­mum amount of insulation to be worn—loose even in a position with the arms extended ahead and up in an exaggerated reach. Any binding in the layers of garments will make cold spots. If ventilating clothing is not worn under the layers, the looser the garments the better. If a down jacket is worn and it has the type of sleeve that allows withdrawing the arms completely inside the jacket, then the outer parka must be cut to match it or the withdrawing feature is lost.

Every jacket tends to hike up at the waist when the person wearing it reaches above his head. The only way to eliminate this is to cut enough blouse above the waist to allow for the hike with­out raising the waist. There are no advantages in cutting the sleeves pointing up since the rise comes from the shoulders them­selves and not just from the arms. If all sleeves are cut straight out, or slightly lower, there is sufficient allowance. Place the draw­string at the waist level when the arms are raised and this will eliminate the hiking up.

Wind protection for the pants need not be elaborate. The jacket is used much more often than pants due to the greater neces­sity of protecting the upper body from heat loss. Pants take more wear and tear so the more rugged pants are left outside as long as possible. However, there is no question but that the addition of a windproof snow shedding layer to the pants will give a great deal of warmth when it is needed, and it will keep the pants dry in the snow. The lightest nylon fabric can be used, cut to any pants pat­tern but with at least six inches additional circumference to each leg. An elastic drawstring at the waist will enable the pants to be pulled down easily to get into the climbing pants pockets, and therefore no pockets or fly need be put in the wind pants to break their weather seal. The cuffs should have drawstrings so they can be left open for ventilation. A pair of pants such as this can be carried easily in a pocket and weighs only a few ounces.
INSULATION

The next consideration after a good quality shirt and pants and adequate wind protection is additional warmth, or the insulated layer. The amount of insulation required in cold weather depends not only on the temperature, but also on the degree of activity. Actually the thickness of the insulation required increases as the diameter of the object to be insulated decreases; thus more insula­tion is required for legs than body, more for arms than legs. However, in practice the opposite situation usually prevails since it is easier to put a greater amount on the body, with thinner insula­tion on the limbs to retain freedom of movement. This is not so detrimental as it may sound because the limbs act as radiators to control the heat of the body. If the body is kept very warm (this includes the head and face area which are very important sources of heat loss) it will send its excess heat to the hands and feet in an effort to get rid of it. In this way the extremities are kept warm even when insufficiently clothed. On the other hand, if the body becomes chilled one of its first defenses is to cut down on the cir­culation to the extremities in order that it may conserve its own heat. In this condition no amount of insulation on hands and feet will do any good.

Most of the time it is not possible to adjust the body insulation to match exactly the heat output due to varying conditions of activity. One is either cold when inactive or overheated when working hard. Absolutely everything practical must be done to prevent sweating in cold weather as the moisture thus produced will find its way into the insulating layer and rob it of its insulat­ing value. One great aid in this process is the use of some kind of netting underwear which holds clothes away from the skin allow­ing the air to circulate more freely. This also allows the moisture to evaporate through ventilation from pant legs and cuffs out through the neck opening. Commercial net (Brynje) underwear is better than nothing though it tends to cut the air up into pockets rather than to encourage its free circulation. The old original shirt which was made of knotted fish net served the pur­pose better, though it is rather uncomfortable under the load of a pack.

A shirt like the original knotted net type can be made by weav­ing ordinary cotton cord of a fairly large size into a regular net by methods covered in knot and craft books. Better yet, nylon braided cord can be used. The nylon is nonabsorbent and will thus get rid of the moisture better. Wide cloth or webbing straps can be used over the shoulders where the pack straps rub.
The basic idea of any of this underwear is to get rid of the moisture of perspiration before it can start to pass through the layers of clothing. If this moisture passes through the clothing it will eventually come into contact with a layer the temperature of which is below the dew or frost point. If this happens the moisture will either condense or freeze on that layer, causing much trouble.

As stated several times before, the amount of insulation furnished depends on the thickness of the insulation only, not on the particular material used, so long as it satisfies the condition of eliminating convection currents in the trapped air. There are no "miracle fibers" for insulating clothing, but as in sleeping bags, nothing surpasses waterfowl down. Not only will the lightest weight fill the greatest amount of space, but it will also compress the most for packing. Down makes a comfortable garment due to this compressibility because it will not allow binding under the arms and in those areas where bulk is uncomfortable. Just how much insulation to build into a down jacket depends on what its use will be. Ice fishing, for instance, requires more insulation than hiking or skiing. A table of the various thicknesses required for various degrees of activity follows.

Inches of Insulation Needed
According to Still Air Temperature and Activity

From Burton's Man In A Cold Environment using a practical in­sulation value for clothing of 4 clo/inch.  Thickness is measured from skin to outer garment layer.

Temperature	Sleeping	Light Work	Heavy Work
40ºF	1.5²	.8²	.20²
20ºF	2.0²	1.0²	.27²
0ºF	2.5²	1.3²	.35²
-20ºF	3.0²	1.6²	.40²
-40ºF	3.5²	1.9²	.48²
-60ºF	4.0²	2.1²	.52²

This should help in designing garments of the proper thickness for the conditions under which they will be used. Since it is im­possible to design for maximum thickness on all parts of the body some compromise must be made. The usual maximum practical thicknesses are four inches on the torso and two inches on the arms and legs.

It is important to remember that the garment must maintain this thickness in use to be of value. The differential cut of the fabric is even more important here than in the sleeping bag. For every inch of thickness the outside layer must be 7" greater in cir­cumference than the inside layer. Over the shoulders, the differ­ential cut must be vertical and although this extends down the arms there must be differential in both directions at the actual shoulder to allow for fullness when the arms are down at the sides. Differential at the elbow also helps, Wind pressure must also be considered and the compartments a little overstuffed with down so they don't flatten out in a strong wind.
The preceding description is of a jacket designed for maximum protection and should not be interpreted to mean that anything less is useless. Indeed, a plain quilted jacket of dacron batting can give up to an inch of insulation and be ample for most uses, far surpassing the equivalent in sweaters and wool shirts when it comes to ease in wearing and compactness in packing. With the clear picture that the basic requirement of an insulating layer is the maintenance of a certain thickness of insulation, one can readily decide which refinements to add to a simple jacket to make it give more and more insulation without increasing the weight of the materials used.

It is worth mentioning that a down filled hood is very very warm but almost impossible to hear through, even if thin spots are stitched over the ears. If a hooded wool shirt is used with a windproof parka hood outside it, a down hood will probably never be needed.

There are two types of insulating jackets. One is exclusively in­sulation made to go underneath a windproof garment which also carries the pockets and other gadgets. The other type is actually an outer jacket itself with an insulating lining included. The for­mer can be made of the lightest nylon fabric. The second type should be made with an outside fabric sufficiently strong to wear well. Nothing over 5 ounce weight should be used, however, or it will have to be stuffed with extra insulation in order to push the heavy stiff fabric out to the required thickness. The inner fabric can be light weight and should be slippery so as not to bind on the clothes. A slippery outer fabric will greatly reduce the bulky bind­ing feeling too, especially under the arms.

If an outer wear jacket is being made pockets are generally re­quired. If the jacket is fingertip length there is usually a surplus of insulation below the waist anyway, so a couple of pockets stitched through both layers won't make much difference. A handy combination of hand warmer and snap flap pocket can be sewn on below the waist. Another combination is a couple of slash hand warmer pockets actually surrounded by down up on the chest, and two patch pockets, to hold gloves and such, below the waist. The collar should be full and puffy so it fits close to the neck and comes up under the ears. If a hood should be desired for extreme conditions it can be snapped on around the base of this collar which forms a draftproof seal and the hood need not be carried when not needed.

As we have mentioned before, ventilation is extremely impor­tant when an insulating layer is worn. Moisture must have an avenue of escape. The cuffs of the insulating jacket should either be left open if it is being worn under a windproof layer, or if it is the outer layer some means of adjusting the cuffs and waist must be provided. Velcro Tape and snaps as described under sleeping bags, or plain snaps should be used to close the jacket. A zipper is much too likely to foul.

Insulated pants require the same considerations as insulated jackets except that the crotch and inseam can be stitched through completely with little loss in efficiency. Pants are so warm that they can become unbearable as the day warms up so the pants should be made to pull on and off easily over the climbing boots. Suspenders should be avoided since the jacket must be removed to put them on. If the pants are snapped to the inside of the jacket they can be put on without necessity of removing the jacket. A rear "fly" of generous dimensions is a great convenience in down pants.

Insulating pants are of the same two types as the jackets—either a separate insulating layer worn under wind pants, or as an outer garment. In the latter case they require pockets and rugged outer fabric. The resulting thickness of jackets can be determined by using the same tables as applied to sleeping bag construction. A simple method of constructing both pants and jacket is illustrated in Fig. 5, Plate IX. The pieces are constructed with differential cut, but the tubes filled with down while the pieces are laid out flat as shown. The inseams of the pants and jacket underarms are then stitched together.

HANDS

Hands come next on the insulation list. They are always diffi­cult to insulate properly. One of the best provisions for keeping hands warm is a jacket that keeps the body so warm that the excess heat is sent to the extremities. For severe conditions, jacket sleeves with gussets from elbow to waist to allow the arms to be with­drawn inside the insulation next to the body are very practical. Once the hands are withdrawn inside such a jacket all sorts of things can be done in comfort, such as note taking, eating lunch, etc., without ever exposing the hands to the cold. Of course, hands and arms must be used most of the time and they will eventually become cold, but they need never stay cold if they can be with­drawn inside the insulating jacket to warm up again.

The size of mitten needed to keep hands warm on an inactive man at -60° F would be about as big as beer barrels. A reasonable amount of insulation can be provided by about 2" of down on the back of the hand and thumb like a boxing glove. When the fist is closed this almost surrounds the hand with insulation. At the same time the fingers can lie next to a thin leather palm so they can feel a little and handle simple objects. If a third layer of in­sulation is added across the palm so the fingers have a choice of slipping between the two layers of insulation or lying next to the thin leather, the mitten will be warmer and more versatile.
The construction of a maximum protection, minimum bulk, mitten is a complicated and difficult process. A mitten with an in­sulated back only will give a good deal of insulation and be easier to make. Using an ordinary ski mitten pattern, or an old mitten taken apart as a pattern, cut one regular back piece and a second back piece which is about one inch bigger all around. Assemble the mitten as directed but with the second back piece going out­side of the regular back. Take tucks to make them come out even at the key points around the palm. The space between the double back can be filled with down through an opening left at the wrist. It will also be a good deal more convenient than the conventional arrangement of several layers of wool gloves or mitts inside a wind-proof shell. In order not to impair ventilation at the cuffs the mitten can be designed to go inside rather than outside as is usual with the gauntlet type.

It is a good idea to use a thin glove under insulating mittens be­cause, although it adds little to the insulation since each finger is isolated, if the mitten is removed to allow greater dexterity for some operation, the glove remains to give a little protection to the bare skin. Air Force mechanic's rayon anti-contact gloves serve this purpose very well. It is possible to operate cameras and get things out of boxes and pockets with these gloves.

Many times the dexterity of a glove is required and a mitten is inconvenient. If the glove is kept very loose and the body kept good and warm to send a supply of blood to the hands these gloves can be used at surprisingly low temperatures. A loose fitting soft leather glove with a couple of pairs of knit wool liners that can be removed for drying or replacing makes a good outfit.

FEET

The next and last portion of the body which needs increased in­sulation at low temperatures is the feet. While this isn't a short course on shoe making, there are several methods of protecting the feet against the cold and wet. First, there is the light elastic topped and bottomed anklet that simply makes a snowproof and gravelproof closure around the boot top so snow doesn't get in to wet the socks. These require a hold down hook to go under the boot lace to keep them in position. A strap under the foot works better than the hook but wears out quickly, so should be replace­able by being tied to loops sewn to the anklet.

For work in deep wet snow in conjunction with rock climbing where the lug soles of the boot must not be covered, a gaiter or legging is in order. These can be made of any of the fabrics suit­able for packs. The army leggings are a good pattern to follow but should be made tubular instead of being split. This prevents any gaping holes. The excess fabric is between the lacings. The whole legging is cut large enough to slip on over the boots.

Long snow climbs in very cold temperatures necessitate com­plete overboots. This boot encases the climbing boot and pre­vents snow and wet from ever reaching boot or socks.

A plain fabric overboot adds greatly to the warmth of the feet by keeping the feet dry, but this is also a very good place for the addition of a little insulation. A quarter inch of some closed cell foam rubber or plastic, such as Ensolite, incorporated in the over-boot will protect the feet at extreme temperatures and still allow a well fitted climbing boot to be worn and used when needed. The foam insulation should be encased between two layers of fabric so the boot can be slipped on easily. This insulation need only ex­tend down to the edge of the sole and 10" up the leg of the over-boot. The overboot itself comes up just under the knee. The foam insulation may be slipped into a pocket in the overboot, making the boot lighter and more easily handled when the insulation is not needed. The pocket should be open around the bottom edge so the insulation can be inserted with the boot inside out. It will be held in place by the sole when the boot is right side out. The pocket should be sewn closed for a few inches around the heel and toe, but plenty of opening can be left along the sides to insert the piece of Ensolite. (See Fig. 1, Plate X.) If hooks are used on one side of the lacing and grommets on the other, the lace can be left in the grommets and tied at the top permanently. The loop between each grommet can be pulled over a hook until the top is reached. There will be just enough give in the whole system to let the last loop slip over the last hook and pull itself up tight.

The sole of the overboot should be double thick fabric or a non-stretchy chrome leather. A 1½" double fabric or chrome leather strip runs around the lower edge of the upper to take the wear from crampons.

The sole pattern of the overboot should be cut about ¾" larger all around than the outline of the boot sole they are to be used with. The uppers must have a very stubby toe and large circum­ference to allow the boot to be slipped inside. The extra fabric is between the lacing so it gets snugged in close to the leg when the boots are laced. The insulation itself is cut only to encircle the leg with nothing extra. This combination with a couple of pair of heavy wool socks in a good boot will keep the feet warm at al­most any temperature.

RAIN PROTECTION

Rain protection is necessary in any but a dry climate and for anything more than a one day trip. Most water repellent clothing will shed a shower for a short time but eventually will soak through. If a wool shirt and non-absorbent ventilating shirt is worn underneath the clothes a considerable amount of soaking can be tolerated. For protection against prolonged rain, something made of a waterproof fabric must be worn. Close fitting jackets and pants are generally unsuitable for back packing because of the amount of condensed moisture they collect inside. This can make one just as wet as the rain outside. In some special cases such an outfit is satisfactory and a parka and pants of the same cut as the wind parka and pants can be made very simply from a single layer of a very light weight coated nylon fabric, or even of sheet plastic material. Seams can be sewn or cemented. If the seams are sewn they should be coated over with some sort of rubber cement to make them waterproof.

The best all-purpose rain protection is usually a poncho or rain cape that fits over the pack and all. There is a good deal of air circulation underneath a cape which is draped over a pack allow­ing the body moisture to be carried off. A hood is a great help too to keep the water from running down the neck. A rain cape is the lightest possible protection, generally being about fingertip length, either snapping up the front, or pullover style with no sleeves. (See Fig. 2, Plate X.)

A poncho is similar but rectangular with a hole in the center for the head. It folds over the shoulders and snaps down the sides with the arms coming out each side under the fold. In spite of its heavier weight its increased versatility sometimes make it a good choice. Grommets set at the corners and centers of the sides make it a good ground cloth, or the snaps can be utilized to snap it into a tent floor. By alternating the snaps, male and female around the edge, two ponchos can be snapped together to make a rather large tarp or tent. The larger poncho can also be made to cover both the pack and the hiker down to the knees. One disadvantage is that its very largeness makes it difficult to control in the wind. When it is used as a ground cloth or tarp one is deprived of his per­sonal rain garment once camp is set up.

If the poncho is to be used as a tarp there must be a secure means of closing the neck hole. This can be done by using a sleeve of a height more than half the diameter of the hole. This sleeve is closed with a drawstring. A snap-on hood can be used with this closure. Since the neck protrudes from the forward part of the body, the neck hole of the poncho should be cut forward of the center line of the poncho. The neck opening should be ad­vanced even a little more if the poncho is to be worn over a large pack, and the side snaps adjusted accordingly. (See Fig. 3, Plate X.)
To keep the pants dry, not only from the water draining off the poncho or cape, but also long after the rain has stopped, in wet brush, a pair of chaps made of light weight coated nylon is well worth carrying. These slip over each leg and are very simply made by sewing a tube large enough to go over the boot easily and long enough to reach to the crotch on the inside and a few inches higher on the outside of the leg. A snap strap that goes up around the belt secures them, or they can be simply pinned to the pants. These can also be cheaply made from a length of plastic bag tubing. (See Fig. 4, Plate X.)

Parka

List of Materials

Fabric—4 yards 42" or 39", for 36" fabric or larger sizes, add ¼ yard to ½yard Lace—8 feet Zippers—2-8" pocket zippers for double slash pockets if desired 1-11" locking for neck if pullover style 1-34" separating jacket style if jacket Elastic—18" for elastic cuffs if desired. Dot Snappers—6 male and 2 female for snap strap cuffs if desired.

Instructions

1. Read "Layout and Sewing" to familiarize yourself with the operations and terms used.

2. Make up a paper pattern for the various pieces, including alterations for your individual size and desires. The pattern given is for a 36-40 with 33 sleeves although there is a good deal of leeway with a garment as loose fitting as this. The yoke and hood should fit well, so it is best to cut these pieces out of some scrap fabric, assemble roughly and try on for fit. Sleeves should be long enough for a forward and upward reach. The waist line should be indicated on the pattern and it should hang free about 4" below your waist so there is enough blouse to accommodate arms raised directly overhead. The skirt should not be longer than the top of the knees or it will bind if a big step is taken. Types and number of pockets should be considered. If a pullover style is being made, a kangaroo pocket across the front is convenient. Simply install a single horizontal zipper about 12" long instead of the two slash zippers shown.  By placing an extra zipper in the back outer layer under one arm you can make a pocket all the way across the back between the inner and outer layers.

3. Mark fabric from patterns and cut out. Be sure you cut one full size part no. 1 Front and part no. 2 Back, and one each down to the waist only.  Cut two sleeves, part no. 3, two yokes, part no. two hood side pieces, no. 5 (one right and one left if the fabric is not reversible) and two hood center pieces, part no. 6. Save the scraps for drawhems and cuff tapes.

4.  If a pullover style is being made, part no. 1 Front will be whole; if jacket style is being made this part will be cut exactly down the center. In either case, cut the slits for whatever arrange­ment of pocket zippers is desired and install the zippers with cover flaps or bare.

5. Place the inner back and front pieces against inside of outer back and front pieces and pin in position. Treat these pairs as single pieces from now on.

6. Using an insertion seam, inset the back between the two yoke pieces. A couple of inverted box pleats in part no. 2 Back will make it come out even with the yoke. Pin this seam before sewing and stitch. Using the same method, insert the front between the yoke pieces. No pleats are needed.

7. The hood side pieces no. 5 are inserted between the two hood center pieces no. 6 with an insertion seam. Start at the front "A" and work over the head toward "B." Inserting the second side piece is more difficult since the entire hood is inside the center pieces but it can be done.

8. The hood is sewn into the neck hole in the body with a finished felled seam. Start at the back of the neck and work down each side, or pin in position first. The seam is felled toward the body and you can include a hang up loop at the back of the neck if desired.

9. If snap strap cuffs are to be used, cut two pieces 3" x 16" and fold down the center, then fold edges in to the center, making 4 thicknesses and no exposed edges. These ¾" wide straps are sewn across the cuffs, one facing right and one left, as indicated in detail Fig. 1.

10. Sew the sleeves into the arm holes of the assembled body. The edge of the sleeve with the cuff strap protruding is the rear edge of the sleeve. If no cuff straps are used the sleeves are the same either way. Use a finished felled seam and fell up toward the body so water will drain off the finished parka.

11. Sew up the sides of body and sleeves. Use a finished felled seam felled toward the back. Catch one end of the cuff tapes if

12. Sew a plain hem ½" wide around the bottom edge of the used, but leave the long end free. parka. If the parka is to be snapped between the legs, include a 4" tab of fabric as in step 9 in the center of the back. Set a snap in this and in the hem itself, front center.

13. Install the front zipper, either short neck type for a pullover, or a full length one for jacket style. The top stops should be about½" below the edge of the hood face hole. The bottom of the jacket zipper should not reach quite all the way to the bottom hem. If you have shortened the skirt so much that the zipper Is too long, it can be cut off at the top end and run right up to the edge of the hood. Then when facing the hood, the facing must be run out past the zipper teeth and this will form a top stop to pre­vent the slider from coming off. If the zipper is covered on the in­side by a flap of fabric or piece of tape it will keep the cold metal off the chin and help prevent clothing getting caught.

14. Install a facing drawhem around the face opening of the hood, as explained in "Layout and Sewing." Thread in a lace drawstring and stitch the ends of the drawhem opening as tightly as possible around the lace, twisting the lace to make it smaller. This will provide sufficient friction to hold the adjustment without need for tieing.  Anchor the drawstring by a few stitches in the center to prevent its being pulled out accidentally.

15. If elastic cuffs are to be used, sew two elastic loops just snug on the wrist but not tight.  Hem the cuffs over these loops with a ¾" plain hem. If snap straps are used, just hem the cuffs. Then set a female snap in the tag ends of the cuffs about 1" from the actual end.  Set one male snap so the tag end just reaches it. Set another over as far as you will ever want the cuffs snugged down, and set a third midway between these two.

16. Cut and piece a waist drawhem that will go all the way around the parka. Install inside, using the waist drawhem method as explained in "Layout and Sewing." Cover rough edges of the inner back and front pieces at the same time. For pullover style, a leather grommet is sewn in front for the lace drawstrings to come out. For jacket style it is convenient to install the leather grom­met in the center of the back. Two drawstrings, one for each side, and each with ½the remaining elastic sewn to one end, are installed. Their elastic ends are anchored in the drawhem about 2" from the zipper. These drawstrings can be adjusted and tied permanently, thus they are always in adjustment when the jacket is zipped closed.